s 


1  . 


WILLIAMS  &  ROGERS  SERIES 


NEW 


PRACTICAL 


ENGLISH  GKAMMAK 


FOR    USE   IX 
2.  /74l 

BUSINESS   COLLEGES,   ACADEMIES,   NORMAL   AND 

HIGH   SCHOOLS,   AND  ADVANCED   CLASSES 

IN  PUBLIC   SCHOOLS. 


N  EW  YORK  • :  •  ( '  I  X  <  I  X  X ATI  . :  ■  CHICAGO 

AMERICAN   BOOK   COMPANY 


Entered  according-  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1894, 

By  Williams  &  Bogers, 

In  the  Office  of  the  Librarian  of  Congress,  at  Washington,  D.  C 

w.  p.  9 


AMERICAN 
pine&batteb*, 

PREFACE.  ^  FHAt 


THE  design  of  this  book  is  to  present  the  essential  features  of  grammar  briefly 
enough  to  enable  the  student  to  complete  the  course  of  lessons  in  a  compara- 
tively short  time,  and  to  accompany  the  statements  of  principles  with  sufficient 
illustrative  material  to  make  the  study  interesting  and  profitable. 

A  feeling  of  dislike  for  the  study  of  grammar  is  not  uncommon  with  the  student 
where  his  work  is  confined  largely  to  rules  and  principles,  and  little  opportunity 
or  encouragement  is  given  him  to  illustrate  and  apply  the  knowledge  gained. 
The  study  of  principles  is  essential  and  must  be  insisted  upon,  but  the  feeling 
of  dislike  may  be  changed  to  one  of  favor  if  the  study  of  grammar  and  the 
study  of  language  be  made  to  go  hand  in  hand,  especially  if  the  illustrations 
given  in  the  book  and  those  drawn  from  the  student  are  in  keeping  with  his  best 
efforts  in  conversation  and  sentence  making. 

It  is  believed  that  when  the  student  has  selected  or  supplied  the  proper  expres- 
sions called  for  throughout  this  work,  he  will  have  so  exercised  his  power  to 
criticise  and  originate,  and  will  have  so  increased  and  corrected  his  vocabulary  as 
to  have  made  it  apparent  to  himself  that  he  has  been  a  distinct  and  substantial 
gainer  thereby;  and  it  is  further  believed  that  he  will  have  developed  a  liking 
for  the  study  of  language  that  will  be  permanent. 

The  plan  of  this  book  assumes  some  previous  knowledge  of  the  subject  on  the 
part  of  the  student,  and  on  account  of  this  fact  and  the  brief  character  of  the 
work,  it  has  been  deemed  advisable  to  place  all  that  relates  to  a  given  part  of 
speech  in  one  series  of  lessons,  an  arrangement  which  it  is  thought  will  add 
greatly  to  the  convenience  of  those  using  or  referring  to  the  book. 

Some  attention  is  given  to  the  correction  of  false  syntax  (see  note,  page  17). 
But  this  part  of  the  work  has  been  so  arranged  as  to  cultivate  as  far  as  possible 
the  judgment  and  critical  power  of  the  student  by  the  selective  plan  which  has 
been  largely  adopted. 

The  final  part  of  the  work  is  intended  to  lead  from  grammar  to  composition 
and  letter  writing,  and  is  believed  to  contain  enough  of  such  matter  for  the  average 
need,  and  arranged  in  such  a  manner  as  to  be  practicable. 


CONTENTS. 


The  Senteucc 1 

Principal  Elements.. 3 

Modifying  Elements 4 

Classification  of  Sentences 5 

Analysis  of  Sentences 7 

Parts  of  Speech 9 

Nouns --.  10 

Modification  of  Nouns  and  Pronouns 11 

Number. 11 

Person 14 

Gender 14 

Case  in  Nouns... 16 

Pronouns —  19 

Personal  Pronouns... 19 

Personal  Pronoun  and  Antecedent 20 

Ambiguous  Use  of  Personal  Pronouns...  21 

Relative  Pronouns 23 

Relative  Pronoun  and  Antecedent 24 

Ambiguous  Use  of  the  Relative  Pronoun  25 

Interrogative  Pronouns. 26 

Adjective  Pronouns.. 26 

Additional  Rules 27 

Adjectives 29 

Some  Current  Misuses  of  the  Adjective..  34 

Verbs 36 

Modifications  of  the  Verb. 37 

Mode 38 

The  Subjunctive  and  Indicative  Modes 

Compared 40 

Tense 41 


Tenses  in  all  the  Modes 42 

Signs  of  the  Tenses 42 

Number  and  Person 42 

Regular  and  Irregular  Verbs 42 

List  of  Irregular  Verbs. 43 

Conjugation 44 

Progressive  and  Passive  Forms. 45 

Conjugation  of  the  Verb 45 

Agreement  of  Verbs. 49 

Redundant,    Defective,    and    Impersonal 

Verbs 53 

Participles 54 

Some  Uses  and  Offices  of  the  Participle. .  55 

The  Participle  in  Construction 56 

Some  additional  Principles  and  Sugges- 
tions  58 

Adverbs 61 

The  Preposition 65 1 

List  of  Principal  Prepositions  in  common 

use 66 

The  Con j  unction 70 

Interjections 74 

Principles  of  Expression 75 

Synonyms 79 

Effective  Words „ 81 

The  Paragraph 83 

Paraphrasing 85 

Punctuation 87 

Use  of  Capitals ..- 92 

Index 95 


ENGLISH  GRAMMAR 


2-  /  It  I 
LESSOR    1 


1.  Language  is  the  expression  of  thought  by  means  of  words,  and  may  be 
either  spoken  or  written. 

2.  Oram  mar  treats  of  the  principles  and  usages  of  language. 

3.  English  Grammar  is  the  science  which  teaches  how  to  speak  and  write 
the  English  Language  correctly. 

The  Sentence. 

4.  A  word  is  the  expression  of  an  idea. 

5.  A  sentence  is  a  collection  of  Avords  expressing  a  thought  completely:  as, — 
Americans  travel.     Prices  advance. 

6.  In  every  sentence  there  must  be  two  parts;  the  subject  and  the  predicate. 

7.  The  subject  is  that  of  which  something  is  said:  as, — 
Americans  and  prices  in  the  above  examples. 

8.  The  predicate  is  that  which  is  said  of  the  subject:  as, — 
Travel  and  advance  in  the  same  examples. 

Exercise  1. — Select  the  subjects  and  predicates  in  the  following  sentences: 

1.  Corn  ripens.     Stars  appear.     Steamers  ply.     Do  you  try  ?    I  shall  go. 

2.  Palaces  have  crumbled.     Have  leaders  been  chosen  ?    What  can  be  done  ? 

3.  Captains  command.     Managers  direct.     Statements  agree. 

Note. — It  is  hardly  possible  to  give  too  much  attention  to  words.  They  are  "vehicles  of 
thought."  "  They  indicate  both  the  moral  and  the  intellectual  character."  "The  surest  proof 
of  scholarship,  of  discipline,  of  strong  thought,  is  the  right  use  of  words."  At  the  very  outset 
of  our  work  in  language  let  us  begin  to  practice  using  words  as  we  study  them  in  their  various 
relations.  If  we  do  this  as  we  go  along  we  shall  find  the  subject  a  very  interesting  one,  for 
what  we  learn  of  it  in  this  way,  be  it  ever  so  little,  will  have  a  practical  value  for  us. 

Exercise  2. — What  appropriate  predicates  can  be  used  with  the  subject  I  roups.-' 
Some  of  them  are: 

1.  March,  drill,  charge,  parade,  advance,  skirmish,  disperse,  withdraw,  embark. 

2.  Cheer,  surround,  surrender,  conceal,  storm,  scale,  plunder,  rally,  rescue,  defend. 

3.  Bivouac,  conquer,  vanquish,  defeat,  overcome,  disband,  repulse,  attack,  assault,  assail. 

4.  Approach,  desert,  deploy,  maneuver,  reconnoiter,  retreat,  engage,  endure,  halt. 

1 


2  PRACTICAL   ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

5.  Encamp,  hind,  guard,  entrench,  volunteer,  evacuate,  occupy,  form,  enlist,  stack. 

6.  Invade,  encounter,  capture,  hesiege,  seize,  surmount,  rendezvous,  garrison,  confront. 

7.  Hold,  regain,  maintain,  wheel,  face. 

8.  There  are  others.     Can  you  name  some  of  them? 

Exercise  «'?. — Name  predicates  appropriate  to  the  subject  cannon: 
1.     Boom,  batter,  burst,  bombard,  dismantle,  demolish. 
'2.     Name  as  many  more  as  you  can. 

Exorcise  4. — Nnme  predicates  appropriate  to  the  following  subjects: 
Rivers,  reading,  exercise,  experience,  cities,  books,  flag,  water,  heat. 

Exercise  5. — What  subjects  can  be  used   appropriately  with  the  predicate 
encourages? 

1.  Kindness,  sympathy,  example,  success,  assistance,  advice,  influence,  help,  enthusiasm. 

2.  Health,  cheerfulness,   patience,   perseverance,  ambition,  tact,  experience,   prosperity. 

3.  Name  some  others. 

Exercise  O. — Name  subjects  appropriate  to  the  following  predicates  : 

1.  Arouse,  hasten,  certified,  balance,  instructs,  has  attended,  floats,  can  reach. 

2.  Nipped,  will  compete,  charmed,  regulates,  may  be  found. 

Note. — The  foregoing  exercises  may  be  too  simple  or  too  difficult  to  suit  a  given  class. 
It  will  be  easy  to  substitute  others  better  adapted,  and  to  add  as  many  as  may  be  desired. 


LESSOE"   2. 


The  Sentence  —  Continued. 
0.     A  proposition  is  a  subject  combined  with  its  predicate. 

10.  A  sentence  may  consist  of  one  proposition,  or  of  a  combination  of  two 
or  more  propositions:  as, — 

1.  The  rain  falls. 

2.  The  rain  falls  and  the  grass  grows. 

3.  When  the  signal  was  given,  the  supports  were  knocked  away  and  the  vessel  shot  quickly 
into  the  water. 

11.  A  clause  is  one  of  two  or  more  united  propositions. 

Exercise  7. — There  are  two  clauses  in  the  second  example  given  above  and 
three  in  the  third.     Can  you  select  them  ? 

Exercise  8. — Construct  sentences  containing  two  or  more  clauses  in  each, 
using  the  following  subjects  and  predicates  and  combining  them  as  you  may 

choose : 

1.  John,  found,  William,  could  go,  he,  changed. 

2.  My  brother,  telegraphed,  party,  would  reach,  he,  thought,  our  carriage,  would  not 
accommodate. 

3.  Day,  arrived,  sides,  met,  contest,  began. 


THE   SENTENCE.  3 

4.  You,  desire,  I,  shall  be  glad  (to  introduce),  who,  lives. 

5.  I,  trust,  you,  have  had,  letter  will  find,  who,  welcome. 

6.  Ross  &  Co. ,  assume,  they,  give  (second  mortgage),  they  agree. 

Exercise  9. — Construct  sentences,  each  containing  as  many  clauses  as  you 
can  use  conveniently,  about  some  event  of  the  day,  some  item  of  business,  etc. 

Note. — Do  not  hesitate  to  try  something  that  will  require  effort.  What  one  can  do  very 
easily  will  be  of  little  benefit  to  him. 

12.  A  phrase  is  a  group  of  words  forming  a  single  expression,  but  not  con- 
stituting a  proposition:  as, — 

Into  the  water  ;  by  the  way  ;  at  a  bargain  ;  on  horseback. 

13.  Position  of  the  Phrase. — A  phrase  denotes  a  related  idea,  and  its 
position  in  the  sentence  should  show  just  what  that  relation  is. 

The  sentence,  "  He  went  to  see  his  friends  on  horseback,"  may  mean  either  of  two  things. 
Can  you  tell  what  they  are?  Can  you  re-arrange  the  sentence  in  such  a  way  as  to  make  the 
meaning  clear? 

Exercise  10. — Write  sentences  containing  the  following  phrases : 

1.  At  least;  by  kundreds;  on  the  second  day;  from  the  depths. 

2.  After  blowing  the  whistle;  entering  the  next  room;  climbing  the  mountain. 

Exercise*  11. — Tell  which  of  the  following  are  phrases  and  which  sentences: 

1.  On  the  street.  6.     Omit  that  sentence. 

2.  Take  your  books.  7.     He  went  away. 

3.  It  rains.  8.     Over  the  bridge. 

4.  During  a  storm.  9.     Apply  yourself. 

5.  At  the  house.  10.     At  the  desk. 


LESSOR   3. 


The  Sentence. — Pkincipal  Elements. 

14.  The  principal  elements  of  a  sentence  are  the  subject  and  the  predicate. 

15.  The  subject  may  be  ti  word,  a  phrase,  or  a  clause:  as, — 

Winter  is  coming.     To  betray  confidence  is  wrong.     "Your  squadron  looks  very  pretty,"  was 
signaled  by  the  British  admiral. 

16.  The  predicate  consists  of  a  verb,  with  or  without  modifying  words:  as, — 
linin  falls.     To  be  contented  is  to  be  happy.     The  American  admiral  signaled,  "Thank  you.'" 

17.  Simple  or  Compound  Subject. — The  subject  of  a  proposition  is  either 
simple  or  compound. 

18.  Simple  Subject. — The  subject  is  simple  when  something  is  affirmed  of 

only  one  thing:  as, — 
Copper  corrodes. 


4  PRACTICAL    ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

1'.).     Com  pound    Subject. — The   subject  is  compound  when  something  is 
affirmed  o\'  two  or  more  tilings:  as, — 
Gold  and  silver  do  not  corrode. 

20.  Simple  or  Compound  Predicate. — The  predicate  of  a  proposition  is 
either  simple  or  compound. 

21.  Simple  Predicate. — The  predicate  is  simple  when  it  makes  bur  one 

affirmation  of  the  subject:  as, — 
Copper  corrodes. 

22.  Compound  Predicate. — The  predicate  is  compound  when  it  makes  two 
or  more  affirmations  of  the  subject:  as, — 

Copper  corrodes  and  loses  its  brightness. 

23.  Compound  Subject  and  Predicate. — The  subject  and  the  predicate 
of  a  sentence  may  both  be  compound:  as, — 

Gold,  silver,  and  copper  are  mined,  coined,  and  used  as  money. 

Note. — The  subject  nominative  is  called  the  grammatical  suhject.  The  subject  nominative, 
with  its  modifiers,  is  called  the  entire  or  logical  subject.  The  predicate  verb  is  called  the 
grammatical  predicate.  The  predicate  verb,  with  its  modifiers,  is  called  the  entire  or  logical 
predicate. 

Exercise  12. — Write  six  sentences  containing  compound  subjects,  compound 
predicates,  or  both. 

MODIFYING    ELEMENTS. 

24.  The  modifying  elements  of  a  sentence  are  adjective  elements,  adverbim 
elements,  objective  elements,  connecting  elements,  and  independent  elements. 

These  elements  may  be  words,  phrases,  or  clauses. 

25.  Adjective  Element. — Whatever  modifies  a  noun  or  a  pronoun  is  an 
adjective  element:  as, — 

The  diligent  scholar  improves.  A  flock  of  birds  was  in  sight.  The  house  which  stood  on  the 
corner  burned  down.     The  sky  is  cloudless. 

Exercise  13. — Construct  sentences  containing  the  following  adjective  elements: 

1.  Solid;  constant;  thoughtless;  financial;  of  rare  value. 

2.  That  would  not  be  desirable;  suffering  from  cold  and  hunger. 

26.  Adverbial  Element. — Whatever  modifies  a  verb,  an  adverb,  or  an 
adjective  is  an  adverbial  element:  as, — 

The  house  was  sold  yesterday.  The  house  was  sold  to  pay  the  owner's  debts.  He  writes 
very  well.     She  is  wonderfully  patient. 

Exercise  14. — Use  in  sentences  the  following  adverbial  elements: 

1.  Almost  immediately;  quite  recently;  respectfully;  well;  soon. 

2.  Fast;  early;  with  great  difficulty;  ten  years  ago. 

27.  Objective  Element. — Whatever  is  the  object  of  a  verb  or  a  preposition 
is  an  objective  element:  as, — 

The  soil  produces  corn.     He  knows  that  you  are  diligent.     I  did  not  hear  of  it  in  time. 

Exercise  15. — Use  the  following  words  and  clauses  as  objective  elements: 

1.  Flowers;  Napoleon  Bonaparte;  Columbus. 

2.  Who  you  are;  that  the  earth  is  round. 


CLASSIFICATION   OF   SENTENCES. 


Exercise    16. — Supply   appropriate    modifying   elements   for   the   following 

blanks: 

1.     An building  was  blown L by  the 


2.  The man was  rescued 

crew 

3.  Can  you  tell  which  of  the  modifying  elements  just  supplied  are  adjective,  which 
adverbial,  and  which  objective? 

28.  The  connecting  elements  are  the  conjunctions,  the  prepositions,  some 
adverbs,  and  the  relative  pronouns. 

The  connecting  elements  will  be  explained  and  illustrated  farther  on. 

29.  The  independent  element  maybe  a  noun  or  a  pronoun  used  independ- 
ently; or  it  may  be  an  intersection ;  or  it  may  be  something  that  represents  an 
entire  sentence :  as, — 

My  friend,  you  are  not  wise.    He  failing,  who  shall  meet  success?     Oh!  that  you  were  wise. 

30.  The  Attribute. — A  word,  a  phrase,  or  a  clause,  used  in  the  predicate, 
but  relating  to  the  subject,  is  called  the  attribute:  as, — 

The  man  is  honest.'    Milton  is  the  suUimest  of  poets.     My  impression  is,  that  you  will  succeed. 

31.  The  Copula. — The  verb  be,  with  its  different  forms,  am,  is,  are,  ivas, 
were,  etc.,  when  used  to  connect  the  subject  and  its  attribute,  is  called  the 
copula:  as, — 

The  world  is  beautiful.     I  am  weary .     He  teas  rich. 


LESSOR  4. 


Classification  of  Sentences. 

32.  Sentences  are  divided  with  respect  to  use,  into  four  classes:  declarative, 
interrogative,  imperative,  and  exclamatory. 

33.  A  declarative  sentence  is  used  to  affirm  or  to  deny:  as, — 
Men  walk.     Fish  do  not  walk. 

34.  An  interrogative  sentence  is  used  to  ask  a  question:  as, — 
Are  you  glad  ?     Where  do  they  live  ? 

35.  An  imperative  sentence  is  used  to  express  a  command,  entreaty,  or 
request:  as, — 

Know  thyself.     Give  me  a  penny.     Lend  me  jour  book. 

36.  An  exclamatory  sentence  is  used  in  exclamation  or  to  express  strong 
emotion:  as, — 

Oh,  how  sorry  I  am!    Alas!  I  shall  perish  I 


6  PRACTICAL   ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

Exercise  17. — Toll  to  what  class  each  of  the  following  sentences  belongs: 

1.  The  day  is  calm.     How  many  pecks  in  a  bushel  ?     Write  rapidly. 

2.  How  kind  you  are  !     Where  is  Australia  ?    How  bright  the  inoon  is  ! 

3.  Bring  forth  the  prisoners.     We  intend  to  start  to-morrow. 

Exercise  IS. — Write  twelve  sentences  illustrating  these  four  classes. 

>Vi.  Sentences  are  divided  with  respect  to  form,  into  three  classes:  simple, 
complex,  and  compound. 

38.  A  simple  sentence  consists  of  but  one  proposition:  as, — 
Stars  shine.     Who  comes  here  ?    Move  slowly. 

39.  Propositions  are  either  principal  or  subordinate. 

40.  A  principal  proposition  is  one  which  makes  complete  sense  when 
standing  alone. 

41.  A  subordinate  proposition  is  one  which  must  be  connected  with 
another  proposition  to  make  complete  sense:  as, — 

The  man  that  does  no  good  does  harm. 

Note. — In  this  sentence,  "The  man  does  harm,"  is  the  principal  proposition,  for  it  makes 
complete  sense  when  standing  alone.  "  That  does  no  good,"  is  the  subordinate  proposition,  for 
it  does  not  make  complete  sense  unless  connected  with  the  other  proposition.     It  modifies  man. 

42.  A  complex  sentence  consists  of  a  principal  proposition  with  either 
itself,  or  some  part  of  itself,  modified  by  a  subordinate  proposition:  as, — 

Leaves  fall  when  autumn  comes.  He  who  is  diligent  will  win  the  race.  I  hear  that  you 
have  bought  a  fine  residence. 

43.  A  compound  sentence  consists  of  two  or  more  propositions  joined 
by  co-ordinate  connectives:  as, — 

Summer  comes  and  fruit  ripens.     "  I  go,  but  I  return." 

Notes. — I.  Propositions  composing  complex  or  compound  sentences,  are  called  clauses 
or  members. 

II.  The  propositions  composing  compound  or  complex  sentences,  may  themselves  be  com- 
pound or  complex. 

III.  Relative  pronouns,  subordinate  conjunctions,  and  conjunctive  adverbs,  are  used  to 
connect  the  dependent  clauses  of  complex  sentences  to  the  principal  clause,  and  to  each  other 
when  they  themselves  are  complex. 

IV.  Sometimes  the  connectives  are  omitted:  as,  "Talent  is  power,  tact  is  skill." 

Exercise  19. — Write  three  simple,  three  complex,  and  three  compound 
sentences. 

44.  A  complex  phrase  is  one  Ghat  contains  a  phrase  or  a  clause,  as  an 

adjunct  of  its  principal  part:  as, — 
"  In  the  varieties  of  life." 

45.  A  compound  phrase  is  one  composed  of  two  or  more  co-ordinate  phrases: 

as, — 

"  Stooping  down  and  looking  in."     "  Over  the  bridge  and  around  the  bridge." 

46.  A  prepositional  phrase  is  one  which  is  introduced  by  a  preposition:  as, — 
"Of  a  truth." 


ANALYSIS    OF    SENTENCES.  7 

4-7.     An  infinitive  phrase  is  one,  the  principal  part  of  which  is  a  verb  in 
the  infinitive  mode:  as, — 
"To  do  good." 

48.  A  participial  phrase  is  one,  the  principal  part  of  which  is  a  participle: 
as, — 

"  A  measure  founded  on  justice." 

Note.— A  phrase  may  be  used  as  subject,  object  or  attribute,  or  it  may  be  an  adverbial 
or  an  adjective  modifier,  or  it  may  be  independent. 

"To  achieve  success  was  his  aim,"  phrase  used  as  subject.     "  I  like  to  study  arithmetic,"  phrase 

used  as  object.     "  To  miss  the  concert  was  to  lose  a  great  pleasure,"  phrase  used  as  attribute. 

"  Imagine  a  palace  of  ivory  and  pearl,"  phrase  used  as  adjective  modifier.     "  The  old  soldiers 

fought  with  bravery  =  (bravely),"  phrase  used  as  adverbial  modifier.     "  To  speak  plainly,  he  is 

your  best  friend,"  independent  phrase. 


LESSOIST   5. 


Analysis  of  Sentences. 

49.     The  analysis  of  a  sentence  is  the  separation  of  it  into  its  parts  or  elements. 

Example  1. — Washington  captured  Cornwallis. 

Explanations. — I.  This  is  a  sentence;  declarative,  simple  (why?).  Wash- 
ington is  the  subject;  captured  is  the  predicate  verb,  and  is  modified  by  Corn- 
wallis, an  objective  element. 

Example  2. — What  did  you  find? 

II.  This  is  a  sentence;  interrogative,  simple  (why?).  You  is  the  subject; 
did  find  is  the  predicate  verb  (why?).  The  predicate  verb  is  modified  by  what, 
an  objective  element. 

Example  3.— Bring  me  flowers. 

III.  This  is  a  sentence;  imperative,  simple  (why?).  Thou  or  you  under- 
stood is  the  subject;  bring  is  the  predicate  verb  (why?).  The  predicate  verb  is 
modified  by  flowers,  a  direct  objective  element,  and  by  me,  an  indirect  objective 
element. 

Example  4. — They  have  chosen  Garfield  president. 

IV.  This  is  a  sentence;  declarative,  simple  (why?).  They  is  the  subject; 
have  chosen  is  the  predicate  verb  (why?).  The  predicate  verb  is  modified  by 
Garfield,  an  objective  element,  and  Garfield  is  modified  by  president,  an  adjective 
element  denoting  office. 

Additional  Examples. — He  read  the  books.  Students  study  astronomy.  They  rowed  the 
boat.  Obey  the  laws.  Brokers  sell  stocks.  We  elected  him  moderator.  I  gave  him  an 
apple.     Whom  did  you  see? 


8  PBACTICAL    ENGLISH    GUAM  MAR. 

Example  5. — The  boat  glides  smoothly. 

V.  This  is  a  sentence;  declarative,  simple  (why?)  Bout  is  the  subject  nomi- 
native: glides  is  the  predicate  verb.  The  subject  nominative  is  modified  by  the, 
an  adjective  element;  the  predicate  verb  is  modified  by  smoothly,  an  adverbial 
element. 

Additional  Examples. — The  ladies  sing  sweetly.  Eva  ran  rapidly.  I  shall  surely  oppose 
you.     Is  tiic  mountain  very  beautiful?     Promptly  give  him  your  attention. 

Example  (>. — William  is  strictly  honest. 

VI.  This  is  a  sentence;  declarative,  simple  (why?).  William  is  the  subject; 
is,  is  the  predicate  verb  (or  copula);  honest  is  the  attribute  (why?).  The  attribute 
is  modified  by  strictly,  an  adverbial  element. 

Example  7.— Large  trees  are  plenty. 

V I I.  This  is  a  sentence;  declarative,  simple.  Trees  is  the  subject  nominative; 
are  plenty  is  the  predicate  verb  (why?).  The  subject  nominative  is  modified  by 
large,  an  adjective  element.     Are  is  the  copula  (why?).     Plenty  is  the  attribute. 

Example  8. — The  lion  broke  the  boy's  arm. 

VIII.  Lion  is  the  subject  nominative,  modified  by  the,  an  adjective  element. 
Broke,  the  predicate  verb,  is  modified  by  arm,  an  objective  element.  Arm  is 
modified  by  boy's,  an  adjective  element.  Boy's  arm  is  modified  by  the,  an  adjec- 
tive element.     (Some  may  regard  the  as  a  modifier  of  arm.) 

Additional  Examples.— I  wrote  a  long  letter.  Many  hands  made  quick  work.  "Man's 
necessity  is  God's  opportunity."  The  summer  breezes  blow  soft  and  cool.  The  old  man, 
laughing,  said  "Yes." 

Exercise  20. — Analyze  the  following  sentences: 

1.  Compound  subjects. — 1.     He  and  I  went  to  London. 

2.  Wisdom,  judgment,  prudence,  and  firmness  were  his  predominant  traits. 

3.  To  profess  and  to  possess  are  often  two  different  things. 

4.  Education  and  energy  have  accomplished  wonders. 

II.  Compound  predicates. — 1.  The  bank  clerk  wrote  the  draft  and  handed  it  to  the 
cashier  for  signature. 

2.  Education  expands  and  elevates  the  mind. 

3.  He  rose,  reigned,  and  fell. 

III.  Compound  objective  elements.— 1.  He  had  a  good  mind,  a  sound  judgment,  and 
a  lively  imagination. 

2.  Learn  to  labor  and  to  wait. 

3.  We  can  see  Mars  and  Venus  to-night. 

IV.  Compound  adjective  elements. — 1.     He  was  a  good,  faithful,  and  generous  man. 

2.  I  am  not  the  advocate  of  indolence  and  improvidence. 

3.  Napoleon  was  shrewd  and  far-sighted.     He  is  not  angry,  but  excited. 

V.  Compound  adverbial  elements. — 1.     "Man  is  fearfully  and  wonderfully  made.' 

2.  The  soldiers  marched  slowly  and  sadly. 

3.  Swiftly  and  successfully  the  aeronaut  made  his  perilous  trip. 

4.  The  journey  was  accomplished  speedily,  yet  pleasantly. 

5.  The  work  was  done  with  profit  and  pleasure. 


PARTS   OF   SPEECH.  9 

Note. — Compound  and  complex  sentences  should  be  separated  into  their  members,  or 
clauses,  in  analysis,  and  each  of  these  should  be  treated  as  a  simple  sentence. 

VI.  Compound  sentences. — 1.     William  went  to  Paris  and  Henry  staid  at  home. 

2.  The  wind  rose  and  the  ship  began  to  roll. 

3.  Our  boat  capsized,  but  we  were  rescued. 

VII.  Complex  sentences. — 1.     The  hand  that  governs  in  April,  governs  in  January. 

2.  I  venerate  the  man  whose  heart  is  warm. 

3.  I  know  now  why  you  corrected  me. 

4.  "  Come  as  the  winds  come,  when  navies  are  stranded." 

Notes. — I.  The  student  should  not  pass  beyoud  this  lesson  until  he  has  fully  mastered  all 
the  different  kinds  of  elements  and  sentences  mentioned  in  it. 

II.  Continuous  narrative,  if  not  too  difficult  in  style,  usually  affords  better  material  for 
practice  than  short  sentences  having  no  relation  to  each  other,  and  the  "  Selection  for  Prac- 
tice "  given  below  is  believed  to  be  suited  to  the  average  student.  The  time  for  several  lessons 
may  be  very  profitably  given  to  the  study  of  this  selection  or  any  others  considered  more 
suitable. 

SELECTION    FOR   PRACTICE. 

"The  entire  brigade  scarcely  made  one  effective  regiment  according  to  the  numbers  of 
Continental  armies,  &nd  yet  it  was  more  than  we  could  spare.  As  they  rushed  toward  the 
front,  the  Russians  opened  on  them  from  the  guns  in  the  redoubt  on  the  right,  with  volleys  of 
musketry  and  rifles.  Tbey  swept  proudly  past,  glittering  in  the  morning  sun  in  all  the  pride 
and  splendor  of  war. 

We  could  scarcely  believe  the  evidence  of  our  senses.  Surely  that  handful  of  men  are  not 
going  to  charge  an  army  in  position!  Alas!  it  was  but  too  true.  Their  desperate  valor  knew 
no  bounds,  and  far  indeed  was  it  removed  from  its  so  called  better  part — discretion. 

They  advanced  in  two  lines,  quickening  their  pace  as  they  closed  toward  the  enemy.  A 
more  fearful  spectacle  was  never  witnessed  than  by  those  who  beheld  those  heroes  rushing  to 
the  arms  of  death.  At  the  distance  of  twelve  hundred  yards  the  entire  line  of  the  enemy 
belched  forth,  from  thirty  iron  mouths,  a  flood  of  smoke  and  flame  through  which  hissed  the 
deadly  balls.  Their  flight  was  marked  by  instant  gaps  in  our  ranks,  by  dead  men  and  horses, 
by  steeds  flying  wounded  or  riderless  across  the  plain. 

The  first  line  is  broken!  —  it  is  joined  by  the  second!  —  they  never  halt  or  check  their  speed 
for  an  instant.  With  diminished  ranks — thinned  by  those  thirty  guns  which  the  Russians  had 
laid  with  the  most  deadly  accuracy — with  a  halo  of  flashing  steel  above  their  heads,  and  with 
a  cheer  which  was  many  a  noble  fellow's  death-cry,  they  flew  into  the  smoke  of  the  batteries; 
but,  ere  they  were  lost  from  view,  the  plain  was  strewed  with  their  bodies,  and  with  the  car- 
casses of  horses." — Russell. 


LESSOR   6. 


Parts  of  Si'Eech. 

50.  There  are  eight  classes  of  words,  or  parts  of  speech,  in  the  English 
language:  Nouns,  Pronouns,  Adjectives,  Verbs,  Adverbs,  Prepositions, 
Conjunctions,  and  Interjections. 

51.  The  noun,  pronoun,  verb,  and  some  adjectives  and  adverbs,  are  inflected. 


10  PRACTICAL   ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

NOUNS. 

-VJ.     A  noun  is  the  name  of  any  person,  place,  or  thing.     (Illustrate.) 

53.  Nouns  are  of  two  kinds,  Proper  and  Common. 
Common  nouns  include  collective,  abstract  and  verbal. 

54.  A  proper  noun  is  a  name  applied  to  a  person  or  to  an  individual  object: 
as, — 

Henry,  America,  Bible. 

55.  A  com  iii on  noun  is  the  name  applied  to  each  of  a  class  of  objects:  as, — 
Book,  bell,  school. 

56.  The  principal  office  of  nouns  is  to  name  the  thing  of  which  we  affirm 
something. 

57.  Any  word,  syllable,  letter  or  symbol,  may  be  used  as  a  noun:  as, — 
You  is  a  pronoun.     Con  is  a  prefix.     B  is  a  consonant.     .  is  a  period. 

58.  A  collective  noun  is  a  name  denoting  in  the  singular  form  more  than 
one  object  of  the  same  kind:  as, — 

Council,  meeting,  committee,  family. 

Exercise  21. — Write  at  least  ten  other  collective  nouns. 

59.  An  abstract  noun  denotes  attributes:  as, — 
Virtue,  wisdom,  whiteness,  indolence,  ambition,  goodness. 

Exercise  22. — "Write  ten  other  abstract  nouns. 

60.  A  verbal  noun  is  a  participle  or  an  infinitive  used  as  a  noun:  as, — 
Studying  is  pleasant.     To  progress  is  our  desire. 

Exercise  23. — Write  ten  other  verbal  nouns. 

61.  Words  from  other  parts  of  speech,  also  phrases  and  clauses,  are  sometimes 
used  as  nouns:  as, — 

In  the  gray  of  the  morning.     What  time  does  your  "promptly'"  mean?     To  be  contented  ia 
to  be  happy.     That  the  earth  is  round  can  easily  be  shown. 

Exercise  24. — To  which  class  does  each  of  the  following  nouns  belong? 

1.  Mind,  music,  thoughts,  muscle,  strength,  class,  duty,  city. 

2.  Charter,  rights,  time,  gold,  quality,  courage,  money,  Kaiser. 

3.  Queen,  president,  navy,  war,  prices,  food,  culture,  neatness,  group. 

4.  People,  darkness,  produce,  plan,  running,  Asia,  June,  day,  Monday. 

Exercise  25. — Form  abstract  nouns  from  the  following  adjectives,  and  adjec- 
tives from  the  nouns.     ( More  than  one  can  be  given  in  some  cases.) 

1.  Long  (3),  wide,  broad,  true,  deceptive,  able,  magnanimous. 

2.  Inclement,  worthy,  acceptable,  grievous  (2),  wise,  prudent. 

3.  Apt  (2),  sagacious,  attentive,  quiet  (2),  lovely,  legible. 

4.  Firm,  gentle,  fortune,  sorrow  (2),  mirth,  fire,  ancestor. 

5.  Art  (2),  splendor,  beauty  (2),  science,  wit,  courage,  hope  (2). 

6.  Despair,  cheer,  multitude,  idea,  sense  (2),  speed,  care  (3),  heart  (3). 


MODIFICATIONS   OF   NOUNS   AND    PRONOUNS. 


LESSOR   7 


Modifications  of  Nouns  and  Pronouns. 


number. 

62.  Modifications,  or  inflections  of  the  parts  of  speech,  are  changes  in  their 
form,  meaning,  and  use. 

63.  Nouns  and  pronouns  have  number,  person,  gender,  and  case. 

64.  Number  is  that  modification  of  a  noun  or  pronoun  which  denotes  one 
thing  or  more  than  one.     There  are  two  numbers,  the  singular  and  the  plural. 

65.  The  singular  number  denotes  one  thing. 

66.  The  plural  number  denotes  more  than  one  thing. 

NUMBER    FORMS. 

67.  Formation  of  Plural  Nouns. — The  plural  of  nouns  is  regularly  formed 
by  adding  s  to  the  singular. 

68.  When  the  singular  ends  in  a  sound  that  cannot  be  united  with  that  of  s> 
es  is  added  to  form  another  syllable:  as, — 

Topaz,  topazes;  fox,  foxes;  match,  matches. 

Note. —  Such  words  as  horse,  niche,  and  cage,  drop  the  final  e  when  es  is  added. 

Exercise  26. — Form  the  plural  of  each  of  the  following  nouns,  and  note  what 
letters  represent  sounds  that  cannot  be  united  with  the  sound  of  "  s": 

1.  Ax  or  axe,  arch,  adz  or  adze,  box,  brush. 

2.  Cage,  chaise,  cross,  ditch,  face,  gas,  glass,  hedge,  horse. 

3.  Lash,  lens,  niche,  prize,  race. 

69.  Nouns  ending  in  0. — Some  nouns  ending  in  o  preceded  by  a  consonant, 
take  "es"  without  an  increase  of  syllables:  as, — 

Hero,  heroes;  cargo,  cargoes. 

70.  Some  nouns  ending  in  o  preceded  by  a  consonant,  require  s  only.     Nouns 
ending  in  o  preceded  by  a  vowel,  add  s. 

Exercise  27. — Form  the  plurals  of  the  following  words: 

1.  Canto,  dommo,  duodecimo,  halo,  junto,  lasso,  memento,  octavo. 

2.  Piano,  proviso,  quarto,  salvo,  solo,  two,  tyro,  zero,  trio,  folio,  embryo. 

3.  Cargo,  echo,  embargo,  grotto,  hero,  bravado,  motto,  mosquito,  mulatto. 

4.  Negro,  portico,  potato,  tornado,  volcano,  buffalo,  calico. 

5.  What  other  nouns  ending  in  o  can  you  name? 

Note. — The  plurals  of  the  above  nouns  can  be  found  in  an  unabridged  dictionary. 

71.  Nouns  ending  in  Y. — Common  nouns  ending  in  y  after  a  consonant, 

change  y  into  i,  and  take  es  without  increase  of  syllables.     Nouns  ending  in  y 
after  a  vowel,  require  s. 


12  PRACTICAL    ENGLISH    GRAMMAR* 

Exercise  2S. — Form  the  plurals  of  the  following  words: 

1.     Alley,  ally,  attorney,  chimney,  city,  colloquy,  daisy.     . 

•J.      Essay,  fairy,  fancy,  kidney,  lady,  lily. 

3.     Money,  monkey,  mystery,  soliloquy,  turkey,  valley,  vanity. 

72.  Nouns  ending  in  f  or  fe. — Nouns  ending  in  /  or  /<?,  change/  or  fe 
into  ves,  in  t  lie  plural:  as. — 

Loaf,  loaves;  life,  lives. 

Km  i  iTinNs — Dwarf,  scarf,  reef,  brief,  chief,  grief,  kerchief,  handkerchief,  mischief  ,  gmj;  turj 
surf,  soft .  jif, ,  strife,  proof,  hoof,  reproof,  follow  the  general  rule.     Nouns  ending  in  ff  require  t 
in  their  plural ;  as  mull,  muffs.     Staff  makes  staves,  but  its  compounds  are  regular;  as,  flagstaff. 
flagstaff's.     Wharf  has  either  wharfs  or  wharves. 

Exercise  2i). — Give  the  plural  of  each  of  the  following  nouns  and  the  rulf 

for  forming  it : 

Example. — Fox;  plural,  foxes. 

Rule. — Nouns  ending  in  ./■  form  the  plural  by  adding  es. 

1.  Box,  book,  candle,  hat,  loaf,  wish,  fish,  sex,  coach,  inch. 

2.  Sky,  bounty,  army,  duty,  knife,  echo,  loss,  cargo,  wife,  story,  church. 

3.  Table,  glass,  study,  calf,  branch,  street,  potato,  peach,  sheaf,  booby. 

4.  Rock,  stone,  house,  glory,  hope,  flower,  city,  difficulty,  distress,  wolf. 

0.  Day,  bay,  relay,  chimney,  journey,  valley,  needle,  enemy,  army,  vale. 

6.  Ant,  hill,  sea,  key,  toy,  monarch,  tyro,  grotto,  nuncio,  gulf. 

7.  Handkerchief,  hoof,  staff,  muff,  cliff,  whiff,  cuff,  reef,  safe,  wharf. 

Exercise  30. — Give  the  number  of  the  following  nouns: 

1.  Book,  trees,  plant,  shrub,  globes,  planets,  toys,  home. 

2.  Fancy,  mosses,  glass,  state,  foxes,  houses,  prints,  spoon,  bears. 

3.  Lilies,  roses,  churches,  glove,  silk,  skies,  hill,  river,  scenes,  stars,  innuendo. 

4.  Berries,  peach,  porch,  glass,  pitcher,  valleys,  mountain,  cameos. 

Exercise  31. — Write  six  sentences,  using  in  each  sentence  one  of  the  preceding 
"words,  first  in  the  singular  and  then  in  the  plural  number. 

73.  Irregular  Plurals. — Some  nouns  are  irregular  in  the  formation  of  the 
plural,  that  is,  no  general  rule  can  be  given:  as, — 

1.  Man,  men;  child,  children;  mouse,  mice;  foot,  feet. 

2.  Cherub,  cherubim  or  cherubs;  crisis,  crises;  datum,  data;  ellipsis,  ellipses. 

3.  Erratum,  errata;  focus,  foci;  fungus,  fungi;  nebula,  nebula. 

4.  Genus,  genera;  hypothesis,  hypotheses;  miasma,  miasmata. 

74.  Compound  Words. — Some  compound  nouns  in   which   the  principal 
word  stands  first,  vary  the  first  word:  as, — 

Son-in  law,  sons-in-law,  court-martial,  courts-martial ;  sister-in-law,  sisters-in  law. 

Exercise  32. — Form  the  plural  of  the  following  words: 

1.  Aid  de-camp,  attorney-at-law,  billet-doux. 

2.  Hanger-on,  knight-errant,  man-of  war. 

75.  Most  compounds  vary  the  last  word:  as, — 
Pailfuls,  gentlemen;  cupful,  cupfuls. 

Note. — Pluralize  generally  that  part  of  the  compound  word  which  is  described  by  the  rest 


MODIFICATIONS   OF   NOUN'S   AND    PRONOUNS.  13 

Exercise  33. — Write  the  plural  of  the  following  words: 

I.  Court-yard,  dormouse,  Englishman,  fellow-servant,  fisherman. 

'2.     Frenchman,  forget-me-not,  goose-quill,  handful,  maid-servant,  man-trap,  mouthful. 
3.     Piano  forte,  porte-monnaie,  step-son,  tete-a-tete,  tooth-brush. 

Notes. — I.  The  following  nouns  are  not  treated  as  compounds  of  man :  Brahman,  German, 
Mussulman,  Norman,  Ottoman,  talisman.     Their  plurals  are  formed  by  adding  «. 

II.  A  few  compounds  vary  both  parts:  as,  man-singer,  men-singers;  man-servant,  men- 
servants. 

III.  The  nouns  alms,  riches,  ethics,  pains,  politics,  optics,  and  some  others,  are  occasionally 
construed  as  singular,  but  more  properly  as  plural.  News,  formerly  singular  or  plural,  is  now 
mostly  singular.  Molasses  and  measles,  though  ending  like  a  plural,  are  singular,  and  are  so 
used.  Oats  is  generally  plural;  gallows  is  both  singular  and  plural;  foot  and  horse,  meaning 
bodies  of  troops,  and  people,  meaning  persons,  are  always  construed  as  plural;  cannon,  shot, 
sail,  cavalry,  infantry,  are  either  singular  or  plural.  People,  when  it  signifies  a  community,  or 
body  of  persons,  is  a  collective  noun  in  the  singular;  sometimes,  though  rarely,  it  takes  a  plural 
form:  as,  "  many  peoples  and  nations. " 

IV.  A  few  words  that  are  usually  plural,  viz:  bowels,  embers,  entrails,  lungs,  have  sometimes 
a  singular,  denoting  a  part  of  that  expressed  by  the  plural:  as,  boioel,  lung,  etc. 

Y.  Some  nouns  are  alike  in  both  numbers:  as,  deer,  sheep,  swine,  vermin,  grouse,  salmon, 
trout,  apparatus,  means,  hiatus,  series,  congeries,  species,  superficies,  head,  cattle;  certain  building 
materials,  as,  brick,  stone,  plank,  joist,  in  mass;  also,  fish,  and  sometimes  fowl,  when  denoting 
the  class.  But  several  of  these,  when  used  in  a  plural  sense,  denoting  individuals  or  species, 
have  the  regular  plural  also:  as,  salmons,  trouts,  fishes,  fowls,  etc. 

VI.  The  words  brace,  couple,  pair,  yoke,  dozen,  score,  gross,  hundred,  thousand,  and  some 
others,  are  usually  alike  in  both  numbers,  but  in  some  other  constructions,  particularly  after 
in,  by,  etc.,  they  assume  in  the  plural,  a  plural  form:  as,  "  in  braces  and  dozens,"  "by  scores 
and  hundreds,"  "worth  thousands." 

76.     Letters,  figures,  and  other  characters,  are  generally  made  plural  by- 
adding  's;  the  plural  of  such  nouns  may,  however,  be  regularly  formed:  as, — 
The  a's  and  n's  in  that  word.     The  4's  and  5's,     Cross  your  t's  and  dot  your  i's. 

??.  Title  Prefixed. — When  a  title  is  prefixed  to  a  proper  name,  the  expres- 
sion is  made  plural  by  annexing  the  plural  termination  to  either  the  name  or  the 
title,  but  not  to  both:  as, — 

The  Misses  Howard.     The  Miss  Clarks.     Messrs.  Dake. 

Notes. — I.  When  the  title  is  Mrs.,  or  is  preceded  by  a  numeral,  the  name  is  always  made 
plural:   as,  the  Mrs.  Browns.     The  two  Mr.  Barlows. 

II.  The  title  is  always  made  plural  when  it  refers  to  twro  or  more  persons:  as,  Drs.  Brown 
and  Johnson. 

Exercise  34. — Spell  the  plural  of  the  following: 
Mi8s  Brown,  Mrs.  Jones,  Mr.  Lincoln,  Dr.  Williams. 


14  PRACTICA]     ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 


U-lssoN    8. 


Person. 

<S.     Person,  in  Grammar,  is  the  distinction  of  nouns  to  denote  the  speaker, 
the  person  or  thing  spoken  to,  or  the  person  or  thing  sopken  of. 

79.  Three   Persons. — There  are  three  persons;  the  first,  the  second,  and 
the  third. 

80.  First  Person. — A  noun  is  in  the  first  person  when  it  denotes  the  speaker: 
as, — 

"I,  Paul,  have  written  it." 

81.  Second  Person. — A  noun  is  in  the  second  person  when  it  denotes  the 
person  or  thing  addressed:  as, — 

*'  Thou,  God,  seest  me."     "Hail,  Liberty!" 

■  82.     Third  Person. — A  noun  is  in  the  third  person  when  it  denotes  the 
person  or  thing  spoken  of:  as, — 

Washington  was  hrave.     Truth  is  mighty. 

Notes. — I.  A  noun  is  also  in  the  second  person  when  it  is  used  in  apposition  with  a  pronoun 
of  the  second  person,  or  when  used  independently  as  a  term  of  address:  as,  "Ye  crags  and 
peaks.'"     Idle  time,  John,  is  ruinous. 

II.  A  noun  in  the  first  or  the  second  person  is  never  used  as  the  subject  or  object  of  a  verb, 
but  may  be  put  in  apposition  with  either,  for  the  purpose  of  explanation:  as,  "And  I  have 
loved  thee,  Ocean." 

Exercise  35. — Compose  ten  sentences  in  each  of  which  there  shall  be  examples 
of  nouns  and  of  pronouns,  illustrating  the  three  persons. 


LESSOJST   9. 


Gender  Forms. 

83.  Gender  is  that  property  or  modification  of  a  noun  or  pronoun  which 
denotes  whether  the  object  named  belongs  to  the  male  sex,  the  female  sex,  or  to 
neither. 

84.  Gender  is  of  three  kinds,  the  masculine,  the  feminine,  and  the  neuter. 

85.  The  masculine  gender  denotes  males:  as, — 
Boy,  man,  husband,  uncle,  king. 

86.  The  feminine  gender  denotes  females:  as, — 
Girl,  woman,  wife,  aunt,  queen. 


GENDER   FORMS.  15 

87.  The  neuter  gender  denotes  things  that  are  neither  male  nor  female:  as, — 
Wood,  coal,  water,  snow,  ice. 

Note. — English  nouns  have  no  distinctive  neuter  forms,  but  a  few  have  different  forms  to 
distinguish  the  masculine  from  the  feminine. 

88.  Gender  Forms  in  Construction. — Gender  as  a  matter  of  orthography,' 

is  of  some  importance;  hut  in  etymology  it  is  chiefly  important  as  involving  the 
correct  use  of  the  pronouns  he,  she,  and  it. 

Notes. — I.     A  singular  noun,  the  gender  of  which  cannot  be  determined  by  its  meaning, 
but  which  is  known  to  denote  a  male,  is  of  the  masculine  gender. 

II.  A  singular  noun,  the  gender  of  which  cannot  be  determined  by  its  meaning,  but  which 
is  known  to  denote  a  female,  is  of  the  feminine  gender. 

III.  A  plural  noun  that  is  known  to  denote  individuals  of  both  sexes  is  said  to  be  of  the 
common  gender. 

89.  How  distinguished. — The  masculine  is  distinguished  from  the  femi- 
nine in  three  ways: 

1.  By  using  different  words :  as, — 

Masculine.  Feminine. 

boy,  girl, 

son,  daughter. 

2.  By  prefixing  or  affixing  a  distinguishing  word:  as, — 

Masculine.  Feminine. 

marcservant,  maidservant, 

salesman,  saleswoman. 

Mr.  Booth,  Mrs.  Booth. 

3.  By  a  difference  in  the  ending  of  the  words:  as, — 

Masculine.  Feminine. 

count,  countess, 

executor,  execut?7-a;. 

hero,  heroine. 

Note. — ess  is  the  most  common  ending  for  feminine  nouns. 

90.  The    pronoun   has  three  gender   forms :    masculine   he,   feminine   she, 
neuter  it. 

Note. — When  a  singular  noun  is  used  so  as  to  imply  persons  of  both  sexes,  it  is  commonly 
represented  by  a  masculine  pronoun :  as,  Every  person  has  his  faults. 

Exercise  36. — State  the  gender  of  each  of  the  following  words: 

1.  tree,  boy,  aunt,  James,  car,  desk. 

2.  Emma,  pen,  cousin,  Henry,  author. 

3.  preacher,  conductor,  electrician,  niece. 

4.  grandsire,  cattle,  regiment,  agitator. 

5.  amanuensis,  deaconess,  bride,  shipmate. 

Exercise  37. — Form  the  feminine  of  cuch  of  the  following  nouns  by  adding  ess. 

1.  author,  baron,  count,  deacon,  giant. 

2.  god  (double  the  "d"),  heir,  host,  Jew,  lion. 

3.  patron,  poet,  prince  (drop  final  "e"),  prior. 

4.  shepherd,  tailor,  tutor,  priest,  prophet. 


16  PRACTICAL   ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

Exercise  .'58. — Drop  the  vowel  e  or  o,  in  the  ending  of  the  masculine,  and 
add  ess: 

1.     actor,  embassador,  arbiter,  benefactor,  conductor,  director,  editor. 

•J.     enchanter,  hunter,  idolater,  instructor,  preceptor,  tiger,  waiter,  auditor,  doctor. 

Exercise  30. — Drop  the  masculine  er  and  add  the  feminine  ess: 
Adventurer,  caterer,  murderer,  sorcerer. 

Note. — Changing  the  termination  of  the  masculine  to  form  the  feminine,  is  gradually  going 
out  of  use. 

Exercise  40. — Give  five  examples  of  each  of  the  three  ways  of  distinguishing 
the  masculine  from  the  feminine. 


LESSOR    10. 


Case  in  Nouns. 

91.  Case  is  that  modification  of  a  noun  or  pronoun  which  denotes  its  office 
in  the  sentence. 

92.  There  are  three  cases;  the  subjective  case,  the  possessive  case  and  the 
objective  case. 

93.  The  subjective  (often  called  the  nominative)  case  of  a  noun  or  pronoun 
denotes  its  office  as  subject  or  as  attribute  complement:  as, — 

John  attends  school.     John  is  a  student. 

94.  The  possessive  case  of  a  noun  or  pronoun  denotes  its  office  as  possessive 
modifier:  as, — 

The  thief's  lost  hat  identified  him. 

95.  The  objective  case  of  a  noun  or  pronoun  denotes  its  office  as  object  com- 
plement, or  as  the  principal  word  in  a  prepositional  phrase:  as, — 

The  thief  lost  his  hat  in  the  struggle. 

96.  Independent. — A  noun  or  pronoun  is  said  to  be  independent  when  it 
merely  names  the  person:  as, — 

James,  close  the  door. 

Note. — The  subjective  and  objective  cases  of  nouns,  are  alike  in  form. 

97.  Rules  for  Possessive. — I.  The  possessive  case  in  the  singular  number, 
and  in  those  plurals  which  do  not  end  in  s  in  the  subjective,  is  formed  by  adding 
an  apostrophe  and  s  fs)  to  the  subjective:     as, — 

Girl's,  John's,  men's,  children's. 

II.  When  the  plural  ends  in  s,  the  possessive  is  formed  by  adding  an  apos- 
trophe only:  as, — 

Girls',  ladies',  husbands',  aunts'. 


ingular. 

Plural. 

Singular. 

man. 

men. 

John. 

man's. 

men's. 

John's. 

man. 

men. 

John. 

CASE    IN   NOUNS.  1? 

98.  The  declension  of  a  noun  or  pronoun  is  the  inflection  or  change  in 
termination  to  denote  the  different  cases  in  the  two  numbers. 

Examples  of  Declension. 

Singular.  Plural.  Singular.  Plural.  Singular.  Plural. 

Subj.        /    lady.  ladies. 

Poss        I      lady's.  ladies'. 

Obj.  lady.  ladies. 

Note. — Proper  names,  for  the  most  part,  have  no  plural. 

Exercise  41. — Write  the  possessive  forms  of  the  following  words  in  both 
numbers: 

1.  child,  women,  James,  lady,  knife,  Harris. 

2.  city,  class,  pulley,  Wilson,  knife,  axe,  arch,  bridge,  year. 

Note. — Instead  of  the  possessive  form,  the  preposition  o/with  its  object,  may  sometimes  be 
used :  as,  The  captain's  statement  =  The  statement  of  the  captain.  My  father's  picture  might 
not  mean  a  picture  of  my  father.  My  friend's  father's  partner's  son  =  The  son  of  the  partner 
of  the  father  of  my  friend;  but,  The  son  of  my  friend's  father's  partner,  or  The  son  of  the 
partner  of  my  friend's  father,  would  be  better. 

99.  The  objective  case  is  used: 

1.  To  denote  the  object  of  a  transitive  verb  in  the  active  voice:  as, — 
James  assists  Thomas. 

2.  To  denote  the  object  of  a  relation  expressed  by  a  preposition:  as, — 
They  live  in  London. 

3.  To  denote  time,  value,  weight,  or  measure,  without  a  governing  word :  as, — 
The  wall  was  1200  feet  long.     It  was  well  worth  a  dollar. 

Note. — The  purpose  of  the  study  of  language  should  be  to  acquire  facility  in  the  use  of  it, 
and  the  main  effort  should  be  directed  to  practice  in  construction  rather  than  to  finding  defects 
in  what  others  have  thought  out  and  expressed.  That  portion  of  the  work  in  this  book  which 
directs  the  student  to  originate  and  supply  is  commended  as  the  really  important  and  essential 
part,  but  the  necessity  of  giving  some  exercises  in  the  correction  of  errors  seems  to  be  evident. 

Objection  is  made  by  some  to  any  presentation  to  the  student  of  incorrect  forms  of  language, 
and  this  might  have  more  force  were  it  not  that  he  is  exposed  to  bad  usage,  in  some  degree, 
every  day.  Many  students  use  incorrect  expressions  for  years  in  entire  ignorance  of  their 
incorrectness  until  confronted  with  them  in  the  class  room.  If,  by  the  judicious  use  of  such 
exercises,  the  student  can  be  educated  to  become  critical  and  observing,  fear  should  not  be  felt 
for  the  ultimate  result.  The  student  is  cautioned,  however,  against  expecting  that  such  work 
only  will  give  him  much  power  in  using  language. 

Exercise  42. — Correct  all  the  errors  in  number  and  case  forms  in  the  fol- 
lowing sentences: 

1.  I  have  two  brother-in-laws. 

2.  There  were  three  knights-templar  in  the  procession. 

3.  Nebulas  are  sometimes  called  star-dust. 

4.  I  saw  the  two  Mrs.  Jackson. 

5.  Miss  Evan's  absence  was  explained. 

6.  The  Jones'  were  all  there. 

7.  Three  boy's  skates  were  broken. 

8.  The  mens'  wages  should  be  paid  prortiptly. 

9.  Jame's  pictures  and  Mr.  Johnsons'  pianos  were  loaned  to  the  society. 
10.     She  is  reading  in  her  sisters  book. 

2 


18  PRAiTlCAL   ENGLISH    (iKAMMAR. 

11.  He  studied  Greenes  grammar. 

12.  The  Generals  presence  was  unexpected. 

13.  Among  his  hooks,  he  had  folioes,  quartoes,  and  octavoes. 

14.  My  brother's  wife's  sister's  drawings  are  much  admired. 

100.  A  noun  or  a  pronoun  that  modifies  the  meaning  of  another  noun  by 
denoting  possession,  must  be  in  the  possessive  case:  as, — 

••  Man's  extremity  is  God's  opportunity."     "  He  loved  his  country." 

101.  Possessive  nouns  in  apposition  or  connected  by  eonjunctions,  take  the 
possessive  sign  but  once,  and  that  immediately  preceding  the  governing  noun:  as, — 

"  For  David,  my  servant's  sake."  "America  was  discovered  during  Ferdinand  and  Isabella's 
reign." 

102.  If  the  words  do  not  imply  common  possession,  the  sign  must  be  repeated 
before  each :  as, — 

He  had  the  surgeon's  and  the  physician's  opinion. 

Note. — Amhiguity  may  often  be  prevented  by  putting  the  assumed  subject  of  a  participle 
in  the  possessive  case :  as,  The  writer  being  a  scholar  is  not  doubted,  may  mean  that  the  writer  is 
not  doubted  because  he  is  a  scholar.  Say  writer's,  or  That  the  writer  is  a  scholar,  etc.  Can 
you  correct  this  sentence  in  another  way? 

Exercise  43. — Select  the  correct  forms  in  the  following: 

1.  There  is  no  doubt  of  the  \  .-!,,    1  passing  the  House. 

2.  You  will  find  the  book  at  -  Bro^n"s  [  tlie  bookseller  and  stationer's. 

3.  This  pencil  is  j  ^J,g  j-  or  Ella's.. 

4.  Were  j   p  ?  s  [    and  Abel's  occupations  the  same? 

5.  Edward  the  Second's  death  was  a  shocking  one.     (The  death  of  Edward  the  Second.) 

(  days  ) 

6.  Ten  -j  days'  [•  interest  will  then  be  due. 

(  day's  ) 

{months  ) 
months'  V  grace  was  given  to  the  debtor, 
month's ) 

*     The  j         g^Seo7,rlr,d  |  1-  not  .eft  to  cbance. 

9.  Neither  the  |  Overs'  1  nor  the  I  doctor's  \  aid  was  ever  needed  in  that  happy  valley. 

10.  There  is  nothing  to  prevent  j  ?  .     (■  going. 

11.  Much  depends  on  the    -j  J^-j-g  [   composing  frequently. 

12.  .Are  you  stating  j  ££&«!£  }<**»? 

(  father   ) 

13.  He  disobeyed  his   <  father's  i   as  we^  as  ^1S  moi^ers  commands. 

*Note. — Opinions  vary  as  to  which  of  these  forms  is  proper.  It  is  argued  by  some  that  as 
"  else  "  is  here  an  adjective  equivalent  to  "  other,"  or  "  besides,"  it  is  as  absurd  to  say  "else's" 
as  it  would  be  to  say  "  Somebody  other's  opinion,"  to  which  it  should  be  answered  that  to  say 
' '  Somebody's  other  opinion  "  (the  equivalent  of  somebody's  else  "),  would  be  manifestly  incorrect. 

The  sanction  usage  accords  the  form  "  else's  "  is  probably  due  to  the  greater  ease  and  natural- 
ness with  which  it  may  be  uttered.  There  is,  certainly,  very  little  authority  in  usage  for  the 
other  form. 


PRONOUN'S.  19 


LESSOX    11. 


Pronouns. 

103.  A  pronoun  is  a  word  used  for  a  name  or  instead  of  a  noun:  as, — 
/am  the  man.     Bunyan  was  a  good  man;  he  wrote  Pilgrim's  Progress.     Harry  said,  "  This 

book  is  mine,  and  /am  delighted  with  it." 

Note. — Pronouns  are  used  to  prevent  the  awkward  repetition  of  nouns  in  the  same  connec- 
tion. But  for  the  pronouns,  the  third  example  above  would  have  to  be  written:  Harry  said. 
"  This  book  is  Harry's  and  Harry  is  delighted  with  the  book." 

104.  Pronouns  are  divided  into  four  classes,  personal,  relative,  interrogative 
and  adjective. 

PERSONAL   PRONOUNS. 

105.  A  personal  pronoun  distinguishes  the  person  by  its  form;  that  is,  the 
word  shows  by  its  form  whether  it  is  of  the  first,  second,  or  third  person. 

106.'  The  simple  personal  pronouns  are  1,  thou  or  you,  he,  she,  and  it,  with 
their  plurals,  we,  you  or  ye,  they. 

107.  The  compound  personal  pronouns  are  myself,  thyself  or  yourself ',  him- 
self, herself,  and  itself,  with  their  plurals  ourselves,  yourselves,  and  themselves. 

Note — The  pronoun  it  is  often  used  without  direct  reference  to  any  particular  person  or 
time:  as,  It  is  impossible  to  please  everyone.     It  is  12  o'clock. 

108.  Forms. — Personal  pronouns,  like  nouns,  express  person,  number,  and 
case,  and  the  third  personal  pronoun  in  the  singular  number  expresses  gender. 

109.  Declension. — The  following  table  shows  the  various  inflections  and 
other  changes  of  the  personal  pronouns. 

Declension  of  the  Personal  Pronouns. 
Singular.  Plural. 

Subj.  Poss.  Obj.       Subj.  Poss.  Obj. 

First  person,  I,       my  or  mine,     me.       We,     our  or  ours,      us. 

Second  per..  You,  your  or  yours,  you.      You,  your  or  yours,  you. 

( Mas.  He,  his,  him,  ) 

Third  per.,  \  Fern.  She,     her  or  hers,      her,  [-They,  their  or  theirs,  them. 

/  Neut.  It,  its,  it.    ) 

Solemn  Style,  second  per.,    Thou,   thy  or  thine,    thee.       Ye,    your  or  yours,    you. 

Exercise  44.— 1.  Name  the  personal  pronoun  in  the  first  person,  singular  number, 
objective  case.     (Ans.,  me.) 

2.  Name  the  third,  plural,  objective. 

3.  Name  the  third,  singular,  possessive,  feminine. 

4.  Name  the  second,  singular,  possessive. 

5.  Give  the  person,  number,  gender,  and  case  of  she,  its,  we,  you,  they,  thou,  thee. 


20  PRACTICAL    ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

PERSONAL    l'KONOUN    AND    ANTECEDENT. 

110.  Ik  ii  I < * . — Personal  pronouns  agree  with  the  words  for  which  they  stand, 
in  gender,  number,  and  person:  as, — 

"A  tree  is  known  by  its  fruit." 
"All  that  a  man  hath,  will  he  give  for  his  life." 

Note. — The  word,  phrase,  or  clause  for  which  a  pronoun  stands  is  called  its  antecedent. 

111.  Special  Rule  I. — When  a  pronoun  refers  to  two  or  more  words  taken 
together,  it  becomes  plural;  and  if  they  are  of  different  persons,  the  first  person 
is  preferred  to  the  second,  and  the  second  to  the  third:  as, — 

He  and  she  did  their  duty.  John,  you  and  I  will  do  our  duty.  Either  you  or  I  am  in  the 
wrong.     Either  Mary  or  you  have  done  it. 

112.  Special  Kule  II. — When  a  pronoun  refers  to  two  or  more  words  in 
the  singular  taken  separately,  or  to  one  of  them  exclusively,  it  must  be  singular: 
as, — 

"A  clock  or  a  watch  moves  merely  as  it  is  moved." 

But  if  either  of  the  words  referred  to  is  plural,  the  pronoun  must  be  plural 
also:  as, — 

Neither  be  nor  tbey  trouble  themselves. 

Notes.— I.  Nouns  are  taken  together  wben  connected  by  and;  when  connected  by  or  or 
nor,  also  after  each,  every,  no,  though  connected  by  and,  they  are  taken  separately:  as,  Each 
book  and  each  paper  is  in  its  place. 

II.  When  singular  nouns  of  different  genders  are  taken  separately,  tbey  cannot  be  repre- 
sented by  a  pronoun,  for  want  of  a  singular  pronoun,  common  gender,  except  by  clumsy  repe- 
tition; thus,  "  If  any  man  or  woman  shall  violate  his  or  her  pledge,  he  or  she  shall  pay  a  fine." 
The  plural  pronoun  in  such  cases,  though  sometimes  used,  is  improper:  as,  "If  any  man  or 
woman  shall  violate  their  pledge,"  etc. 

In  all  such  cases  the  masculine  is  preferred.     Sometimes  the  antecedent  may  be  pluralized. 

III.  Pronouns  referring  to  singular  nouns,  or  to  other  words  of  the  common  gender,  taken 
in  a  general  sense,  are  commonly  masculine:  as,  A  parent  should  love  his  child.  Every  person 
has  his  faults.     No  one  should  commend  himself. 

The  want  of  a  singular  personal  pronoun,  common  gender,  is  felt  also  in  this  construction, 
and  it  is  suggested  that  to  avoid  a  seeming  exclusion  of  one  sex,  the  antecedent  in  such  expres- 
sions be  made  plural;  as,  for  instance,  members  and  jiassengers  in  sentences  26  and  30  under 
exercise  45. 

IV.  A  pronoun  should  be  used  in  the  singular  number,  to  represent  a  collective  noun 
denoting  unity  of  idea:  as,  "  The  board  of  directors  should  have  its  powers  denned  and  limited 
by  a  charter." 

V.  A  pronoun  should  be  used  in  the  plural  number,  to  represent  a  collective  noun  denoting 
plurality  of  ideas:  as,  "  The  Cabinet  seemed  to  be  divided  in  their  sentiments." 

VI.  Do  not  needlessly  insert  pronouns:  as,  "The  river  rising  very  rapidly,  it  overflowed 
its  banks."     Omit  "  it." 

Exercise  45. — In  the  following  sentences  use  the  correct  personal  pronouns, 
give  the  reason  for  their  use  and  state  the  antecedent  to  which  the  pronouns  refer. 

1.  A  person's  success  in  life  depends  on exertions;  if aim  at  nothing 

will  achieve  nothing. 

2.  Extremes  are  not  in nature  favorable  to  happiness. 

3.  A  man's  recollections  of  the  past  regulates anticipations  of  the  future. 


AMBIGUOUS    USE    OF   THE    PERSONAL    PRONOUNS.  21 

4.  Let  every  boy  answer  for 

5.  Each  of  us  had  more  than wanted. 

6.  Every  one  of  you  should  attend  to own  business. 

7.  Discontent  and  sorrow  manifested in  his  countenance. 

8.  Both  cold  and  heat  have extremes. 

9.  You  and  your  friend  should  take  care  of 

10.  You  and  I  must  be  diligent  in studies. 

11.  John  or  James  will  favor  us  with company. 

12.  One  or  the  other  must  relinquish claim. 

13.  Neither  riches  nor  honor  confers  happiness  on votaries. 

14.  Each  day  and  each  hour  brings changes. 

15.  No  thought,  no  word,  no  action,  however  secret,  can  escape  in  the  Judgment,  whether 
be  good  or  evil. 

16.  Let  every  man  and  every  woman  try  to  do best. 

17.  If  any  boy  or  girl  shall  neglect duty shall  forfeit place. 

18.  One  should  not  think  too  highly  of 

19.  A  teacher  should  always  consult  the  interest  of pupils. 

20.  A  parent's  care  for children  is  not  always  requited. 

21.  Both  James  and  Samuel  learned lesson. 

22.  People  should  be  kind  to other. 

23.  Did  you  see  which  of  the  students  finished examples  first? 

24.  Every  boy  and  every  girl  shall  have reward. 

25.  Let  the  President  of  the  Senate  make  such  appointments  as pleases. 

26.  If  any  member  of  the  congregation  wishes  to  connect with  this  church. 

will  please  come  forward  while  the  choir  sings. 

27.  They  had  some  victuals  left  and  we  ate 

28.  Every  person  and  every  thing  was  in proper  place. 

29.  It  is and  not whom  you  wish  to  see. 

30.  If  any  passenger  has  not  paid  his  fare,  . . .  will  come  up  to  the  captain's  office  and  pay  it. 


LESSOR    12. 


Ambiguous  Use  of  the  Personal  Pronouns. 

113.  Position  of  Personal  Pronoun. — A  personal  pronoun  should  be  so 
placed  with  reference  to  the  word  which  it  represents  as  to  make  the  intended 
meaning  perfectly  clear. 

Example  1. — "  The  student  said  to  his  classmate  that  if  he  did  not  feel  better 
soon  he  thought  he  ought  to  call  the  doctor." 

In  this  sentence  the  two  nouns,  "  Student"  and  "Classmate"  refer  to  different  persons,  but 
they  require  the  same  pronouns  to  represent  them,  and  some  of  the  pronouns  are  used  in  such 
an  indistinct  way  as  to  make  it  impossible,  or  very  difficult,  to  determine  to  which  noun  they 
refer.  The  meaning  may  be  that  if  the  student  does  not  feel  better  soon  he  ought  to  call  the 
doctor,  or  his  classmate  ought  to  call  the  doctor;  or  that,  if  the  classmate  does  not  feel  better 
soon  he  ought  to  call  the  doctor,  or  the  student  ought  to  call  the  doctor. 


22  PRACTK  At.    ENGLISH    i.K  \M\1AR. 

These  four  meanings  may  be  shown  by  direct  quotation,  as  follows: 

1.  The  student  said  to  his  classmate,  "If  I  do  not  feel  better  soon  I  think  I  ought  to  call 
the  doctor." 

2.  "If  I  do  not  feel  better  soon  I  think  you  ought  to  call  the  doctor." 

3.  "  If  you  do  not  feel  better  soon  I  think  you  ought  to  call  the  doctor." 

4.  "  If  you  do  not  feel  better  soon  I  think  I  ought  to  call  the  doctor." 

Example  '2. — "The  young  man  made  such  rapid  progress  under  his  teacher's 
direction  that  he  recommended  him  to  his  friend." 

In  this  sentence  it  is  impossible  to  say  whether  the  young  man  recommended  his  teacher,  or 
the  teacher  recommended  I  he  young  man.  The  obscurity  may  be  avoided  by  changing  the 
construction:  as,  The  young  man  recommended  his  teacher  to  his  friend  because  be  had  made 
such  rapid  progress  under  his  direction. 

Sometimes  all  that  is  necessary  to  avoid  the  ambiguity  of  such  constructions  is  to  change 
the  order  of  statement. 

Example  3. — "In  his  accounts  of  campaigns,  he  never  referred  to  his  own 
deeds,  though  he  was  often  in  the  most  exciting  parts  of  them." 

In  this  sentence,  if  we  change  the  position  of  the  last  clause  as  follows:  '*  In  his  accounts  of 
campaigns,  though  he  was  often  in  the  most  exciting  parts  of  them,  he  never  referred  to  his 
own  deeds,"'  the  intended  meaning  is  clearly  shown. 

Note. — Errors  similar  to  those  just  described  in  the  use  of  the  personal  pronoun  are  made 
so  easily  and  unconsciously  that  special  watchfulness  must  be  exercised  to  avoid  them.  The 
person  using  such  expressions  knows,  of  course,  what  nouns  he  intends  the  pronouns  to  repre. 
sent,  but  other  people  often  have  to  guess  at,  or  infer,  his  meaning,  and  even  that  is  sometimes 
impossible. 

Exercise  46. — Change  the  following  constructions  so  as  to  show  clearly  the 

different  meanings  possible  with  each: 

1.  When  the  author  took  his  manuscript  to  the  publisher  he  told  him  it  was  tedious  reading. 

2.  Jack  tried  to  see  Tom  in  the  crowd  but  could  not  because  he  was  so  short. 

3.  The  butcher  told  the  farmer  that  his  dog  had  worried  his  sheep  and  that  he  thought  he 
ought  to  pay  him  for  his  loss. 

4.  There  are  many  children  whose  fathers  and  mothers  died  when  they  were  infants. 

5.  The  young  man  told  me  he  had  never  seen  his  father  as  he  had  been  killed  in  a  train 
-wreck  before  he  was  born. 

6.  She  told  her  to  call  on  her  friend  and  ask  her  to  give  her  a  letter  of  recommendation. 

7.  The  little  boy  asked  his  father  how  old  he  was. 

8.  Harry  told  Charles  that  he  was  glad  he  had  received  the  appointment. 

9.  James  promised  his  brother  never  to  forsake  his  friends. 

10.  The  lad  cannot  leave  his  father,  for  if  he  should  leave  his  father,  he  would  die. 

11.  The  bookkeeper  told  his  employer  that  his  New  York  agent  would  arrive  at  noon  and 
that  he  wished  him  to  show  him  their  new  designs. 

12.  Smith  told  Brown  that  Jones  would  vouch  for  him. 

13.  The  lawyer  told  the  witness  that  the  judge  wished  him  to  answer  his  question. 

14.  Whenever  Jack  met  Tom  he  would  ask  him  to  tell  him  what  he  thought  of  his  plan. 

15.  The  manager  became  aware  of  the  cashier's  fraud  by  a  letter  of  his  to  his  assistant. 


RELATIVE   PRONOUNS.  23 


LESSOR   13. 


Relative  Pronouns. 

114.  A  relative  pronoun  is  one  that  relates  to  some  preceding  word  or  words, 
generally  a  noun  or  a  pronoun,  and  connects  different  clauses  of  a  sentence:  as, — 

Solomon  who  wrote  the  Proverbs.  He  does  not  know  what  to  do.  The  carriage  wfiich 
brought  us  has  returned. 

Note. — A  relative  pronoun  should  never  be  used  merely  as  a  connective:  as,  "I  do  not 
know  but  what  I  shall  attend  "  is  incorrect  because  the  relative  what  is  used  instead  of  the 
conjunction  that. 

115.  The  simple  relatives  are  who,  which,  that,  what,  and  as. 

116.  Who  is  applied  to  persons:  as, — 
The  orator  who  speaks. 

117.  Which  is  applied  to  inferior  animals  and  to  things:  as, — 
The  dog  ichich  barks.     The  house  which  was  burned. 

118. '  That  is  applied  to  both  persons  and  things:  as, — 
The  boy  that  was  truthful.     The  house  that  was  burned. 
Note. — That,  as  a  relative,  is  used  instead  of  who  or  ichich  : 

1.  After  adjectives  in  the  superlative  degree;  after  the  words  very,  same,  and  all;  often  after 
no,  some,  and  any,  and  generally  in  restrictive  clauses. 

2.  When  the  antecedent  includes  both  persons  and  things;  as,  The  man  and  the  horse  that 
we  saw. 

3.  After  the  interrogative  who,  and  often  after  the  personal  pronouns:  as,  Who  that  knew 
him  could  think  so?     "Ithat  speak  in  righteousness." 

4.  Generally  when  the  propriety  of  who  or  which  is  doubtful:  as,  "  The  little  child  that  was 
placed  in  the  midst." 

119.  What  is  applied  to  things  only:  as, — 
He  knows  not  what  to  say. 

120.  What  can  be  resolved  into  that  which  or  the  thing  which.  Its  antecedent 
is  always  omitted. 

121.  As  is  called  a  relative  pronoun  when  it  is  used  after  such,  many,  or  same. 

122.  Gender. —  Who  is  masculine  or  feminine,  and  that  and  which  are  mascu- 
line, feminine,  or  neuter. 

123.  Declension.—  That  and  what  are  indeclinable,  and  are  never  used  in 
the  possessive  case.      Who  and  which  are  inflected  as  follows: 


Declension  of  Who  and  Which. 


Sing,  and  Plu 

Subj. 

Who. 

Poss. 

Whose. 

Obj. 

Whom. 

Sing,  and  Plu. 
Which. 

Whose. 
Which. 


24  PRACTICAL   ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

124.  The  Compound  relatives  arc  formed  by  adding  ever  and  soever,  to 
who,  which,  and  what. 

Exercise  47. — Write  seven  sentences  containing  relative  pronouns. 

RELATIVE    PHONOUN    AND    ANTECEDENT. 

Rule. — The  relative  should  agree  with  its  antecedent  in  number,  gender,  and 
person:  as, — 

Thou  tcko  speakest.     The  book  whicli  was  lost. 

125.  The  antecedent  of  a  relative  pronoun  is  the  word  to  which  the  pronoun 
relates:  as, — 

The  farm  which  was  sold. 

Notes. — I.  The  relative  pronoun  and  the  preposition  governing  it,  should  not  be  omitted 
when  they  are  needed  to  give  proper  connection  in  the  sentence:  as,  "  Yonder  is  the  place  in 
whicli  I  saw  him,"  not,  "  Yonder  is  the  place  I  saw  him." 

II.  Every  relative  pronoun  should  have  for' its  antecedent  a  noun  or  its  equivalent.  "  Be 
diligent;  without  which  you  can  never  succeed,"  should  be,  "  Be  diligent;  for  without  diligence 
you  will  never  succeed,"  or,  "Use  diligence;  without  which,  etc." 

III.  Collective  nouns,  unless  they  refer  to  persons  directly,  require  the  relative  which  or 
that  to  represent  them:  as,  "He  instructed  the  crowds  which  surrounded  him."  Here  who 
would  be  improper. 

IV.  The  adverb  where  should  not  be  used  instead  of  which  and  a  preposition,  unless  place 
is  the  predominant  idea.  "The  grave  where  our  hero  we  buried, "as  correct;  but,  "  The  battle 
where  he  was  killed,"  should  be,  "  The  battle  in  which  he  was  killed." 

V.  In  a  series  of  relative  clauses  having  the  same  antecedent,  the  same  pronoun  should  be 
used.  Thus,  it  is  improper  to  say,  "  The  man  that  met  us  and  whom  we  saw."  It  should  be, 
"  who  met  us,"  or,  "  that  we  saw." 

Exercise  48. — Supply  relative  pronouns  in  the  following  sentences,  and  give 
the  antecedent  to  which  each  refers;  also,  give  the  rule  or  the  reason  for  using 
the  pronoun  you  select: 

1.  Those seek  wisdom  will  certainly  find  her. 

2.  This  is  the  friend I  love. 

3.  That  is  the  vice I  hate. 

4.  The  tiger  is  a  beast  of  prey destroys  without  pity. 

5.  The  court gives  currency  to  such  manners  should  be  exemplary. 

6.  The  nations have  the  best  rulers  are  happy. 

7.  Your  friend  is  one  of  the  committee was  appointed  yesterday. 

8.  The  family  with I  lived  has  left  the  city. 

9.  His  father  set  him  up  as  a  merchant, was  what  he  desired  to  be. 

10.  It  is  the  best  situation can  be  got. 

11.  That  man  was  the  first entered. 

12.  This  is  the  same  horse we  saw  yesterday. 

13.  Solomon  was  the  wisest  king the  world  ever  saw. 

14.  The  lady  and  the  lap  dog we  saw  at  the  window,  have  disappeared. 


AMBIGUOUS    USE   OF   THE    RELATIVE    PRONOUNS.  25 


LESSOR    14. 


Ambiguous  Use  of  the  Relative  Pronouns. 

120.  Position  of  Relative  Pronoun. — The  relative  pronoun  should  be  so 
placed  with  reference  to  the  word  to  which  it  relates  as  to  make  the  intended 
meaning  perfectly  clear. 

Example  1. — "He  delivered  his  oration  in  the  new  hall  which  had  been  pre- 
pared for  the  occasion  the  week  before." 

Which  was  prepared  the  week  before  —  the  oration  or  the  hall?  The  position  of  w?iich 
would  indicate  that  it  refers  to  hall,  so  if  the  other  meaning  is  to  be  conveyed  the  relative 
which  should  follow  tfie  noun  oration. 

Note. — From  this  illustration  it  will  be  seen  that  in  sentences  in  which  the  relative  may 
refer  with  equal  propriety  to  different  nouns,  its  position  must  be  such  as  to  show  exactly  the 
meaning  intended. 


»- 


Example  2. — "The  first  ball  fired  from  our  guns  shattered  the  mainmast 
which  was  a  fifty-pounder." 

The  position  of  which  in  this  sentence  would  indicate  that  it  refers  to  mainmast,  but  it  is 
evident  from  the  sense  that  it  refers  to  ball,  and  it  should  therefore  follow  the  noun  ball,  or  at 
least,  precede  mainmast. 

Notes. — I.  While  in  sentences  like  the  preceding  one  it  is  often  possible  to  gather  the  true 
meaning,  even  though  the  position  of  the  relative  be  incorrect,  yet  the  idea  conveyed  is 
sometimes  so  absurd  that  few  persons  could  be  found  willing  to  use  such  expressions  know- 
ingly. A  letter  written  by  a  friend  contained  the  following  statement:  "  I  have  fully  recovered 
from  my  sickness  of  last  summer #which  prevented  my  joining  you  at  Chautauqua,  for  which 
I  am  very  glad."  The  writer  of  that  sentence  was  unconscious  of  the  suggestion  that  he  was 
glad  his  sickness  had  prevented  him  from  joining  his  friend,  and  his  friend,  of  course,  under- 
stood what  he  was  trying  to  say,  but  the  meaning  that  was  not  intended  was  the  one  made 
most  apparent. 

It  will  be  noticed  that  the  place  where  an  error  of  this  kind  occurs  is  generally  near  the 
end  of  a  sentence,  as  a  thought  seemingly  suggested  at  the  moment  in  addition  to  what  was 
first  intended.  This  may  explain  why  very  absurd  statements  are  sometimes  passed  over 
unnoticed  by  those  who  make  them,  and  it  is  considered  important  that  the  habit  be  formed 
of  reading  carefully  what  one  has  written  before  putting  it  into  the  hands  of  others. 

It  may  be  added  that,  in  such  constructions,  it  should  not  be  necessary  to  rely  upon  the 
punctuation  to  make  the  meaning  clear. 

II.  Errors  similar  in  character  to  those  described  in  the  use  of  pronouns  are  sometimes 
found  in  using  participles  and  prepositions. 

Exercise  49. — Make  the  meaning  clear  in  the  following  sentences: 

1.  A  poor  waif  was  found  in  the  doorway  by  the  wealthy  proprietor  who  was  shivering 
with  the  cold. 

2.  He  delivered  the  ice  to  the  State  St.  dealer  that  he  had  cut  into  twenty-pound  lumps. 

3.  The  pupil  will  receive  a  reward  from  the  teacher  who  is  diligent. 

4.  He  should  not  keep  a  horse  that  cannot  ride. 

5.  (Correct  the  sentence  quoted  in  note  I,  above.) 


PRACTICAL    ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

6.  A  purse  was  picked  up  by  a  boy  that  was  made  of  leather. 

7.  Claudius  was  canonized  among  the  gods  who  scarcely  deserved  the  name  of  man. 

8.  A  dog  was  found  in  the  street  leading  to  the  capitol  that  wore  a  brass  collar. 

9.  Furnished  rooms  wanted  by  two  gentlemen  that  are  heated  by  steam. 

10.  The  cottage  was  sold  to  my  neighbor  that  has  the  brick  foundation. 

11.  A  number  of  seats  were  occupied  by  the  students  that  had  no  backs. 

12.  Our  lunch  was  brought  to  us  on  a  large  tray  which  we  ate  while  the  men  were  getting 
the  boat  ready. 

13.  Mr.  Smith  has  sent  us  some  very  fine  perch  for  which  he  will  please  accept  our  thanks, 
some  of  which  weigh  over  a  pound. 

14.  A  man  has  no  right  to  judge  another  who  is  a  party  concerned. 

15.  The  galleries  are  furnished  with  chairs  set  apart  for  visitors  that  are  beautifully  carved 
and  upholstered. 


LESSOR    15. 


Interrogative  Pronouns. 

127.  An  interrogative  pronoun  is  a  pronoun  used  in  asking  a  question. 
The  interrogative  pronouns  are  who,  which,  and  what.  Wlio  and  which  are 
declined  in  the  same  manner  as  the  corresponding  relatives. 

128.  Who  is  applied  to  persons:  as, — 

Who  comes  there ?     Whose  is  this  horse?     To  whom  shall  I  deliver  it? 

129.  Which  is  applied  to  both  persons  and  things:  as, — 
Which  of  the  boys  did  it?     Which  do  you  prefer? 

130.  What  is  used  with  reference  to  things  in  an  indefinite  manner:  as, — 
What  are  you  doing?     What  will  you  have? 

Exercise  50. — Write  seven  sentences  containing  relatives  and  seven  containing 
interrogatives,  and  underscore  the  recpiired  pronouns. 

ADJECTIVE    PRONOUNS. 

131.  An  adjective  proiioun  is  a  definitive  or  a  distributive  adjective  used 
without  its  noun :  as,— 

Some  one  said  so.     Give  to  each  his  share. 

132.  The  adjective  pronouns  are  all,  any,  both,  each,  either,  neither,  feiv,  many, 
much,  none,  one,  some,  this,  that,  those,  these,  and  a  few  others. 

Notes. — I.  The  personal  pronoun  them  should  not  take  the  place  of  the  adjective  pronoun 
those,  nor  the  pronoun  what  the  place  of  the  conjunction  that:  as,  "I  do  not  know  but  what 
them  two  will  be  enough,"  change  what  them  to  that  those. 

II.  Adjective  pronouns  are  sometimes  called  pronominal  adjectives.  "It  matters  not 
whether  the  words  under  consideration  are  called  adjective  pronouns  or  pronominal  adjectives. 
For  all  practical  purposes,  the  terms  may  be  considered  convertible." — Fowler. 


ADDITIONAL   RULES.  27 

Exercise  51. — Select  the  personal,  relative,  interrogative,  and  adjective  pro- 
nouns in  the  following  extracts,  and  name  the  antecedents  of  the  first  two  classes: 

1.  My  worthy  friend,  Sir  Roger,  is  one  of  those  who  is  not  only  at  peace  within  himself, 
but  beloved  and  esteemed  by  all  about  him.  He  receives  a  suitable  tribute  for  his  universal 
benevolence  to  mankind,  in  the  returns  of  affection  and  good-will  which  are  paid  him  by 
every  one  that  lives  within  his  neighborhood.  I  lately  met  with  two  or  three  odd  instances  of 
that  general  respect  which  is  shown  to  the  good  old  knight.  He  would  needs  carry  Will 
Wimble  and  myself  with  him  to  the  country  assizes.  As  we  were  upon  the  road,  Will  Wimble 
joined  a  couple  of  plain  men  who  rode  before  us,  and  conversed  with  them  for  some  time; 
during  which  my  friend  Roger  acquainted  me  with  their  characters.  — Addison  in  the  "Spectator." 

2.  "  This  chair  is  supposed  to  have  been  made  of  an  oak-tree  which  grew  in  the  park  of 
the  English  Earl  of  Lincoln.  *  *  *  But  when  his  daughter,  the  Lady  Arbella,  was  married 
to  a  certain  Mr.  Johnson,  the  earl  gave  her  this  valuable  chair." 

"  Who  was  Mr.  Johnson?  "  inquired  Clara. 

"  He  was  a  gentlemaD  of  great  wealth,  who  agreed  with  the  Puritans  in  their  religious  opin- 
ions," answered  Grandfather. — Extract  from  "Grandfather's  Chair." 


LESSOR    16. 


Additional  Rules. 

133.  Rule  1. — A  noun  or  a  pronoun  which  is  the  subject  of  a  finite  verb, 
must  be  in  the  subjective  case:  as, — 

"He  who  would  control  others,  must  first  learn  to  control  himself."  He  is  the  subject  of 
in  ust  learn.      Who  is  the  subject  of  would  control. 

134.  Rule  2. — A  noun  or  a  pronoun  used  as  an  explanatory  modifier,  is  put 
by  apposition  in  the  same  case  as  the  word  explained:  as, — 

"  Hope,  the  star  of  life,  never  sets."  "  I,  John,  saw  these  things."  ' '  It  was  Moses,  he  who 
led  the  children  of  Israel  out  of  Egypt."     "  We  heard  Spurgeon,  the  great  London  preacher." 

Note. — "  Star,"  the  noun  used  as  an  explanatory  modifier  is  used  in  the  same  case  (subjec- 
tive) as  the  word  explained,  which  is  "  Hope."  "  John  "  is  in  the  subjective  case  by  apposition 
with  "I."  "  He "  is  in  the  subjective  case  by  apposition  with  "Moses."  "Preacher "  is  in  the 
objective  case  by  apposition  with  "  Spurgeon." 

135.  Rule  3. — A  noun  or  a  pronoun  used  as  an  attribute,  must  be  in  the 
same  case  as  the  subject:  as, — 

"  It  was  /  that  did  it."     "  Lincoln  was  elected  preside?it." 

136.  Rule  4.— A  noun  or  a  pronoun  used  absolutely,  or  independently,  is  in 
the  independent  case,  or  the  subjective  case  independent :  as, — 

"He  being  absent,  I  withdrew  my  opposition."     "Plato,  thou  reasonest  well." 

137.  Rule  5.— A  noun  or  a  pronoun  following  infinitives  or  participL 

intransitive  verbs,  must  be  in  the  same  case  with  a  noun  or  a  pronoun  preceding 
them:  as, — 

It  was  thought  to  be  he.     I  believed  him  to  be  an  honest  man. 


9.S 


PRACTICAL   EM.Ilsll    GRAMMAR. 


Notes. — I.  "  He,"  following  "to  bo,"  is  in  the  subjective  case,  because  "it,"  preceding 
"to  be,"  is  in  the  subjective  case.  "  Man,"  following  "to  be,"  is  in  the  objective  case,  because 
" him "  is  in  the  objective  case,  object  of  "believed." 

II.  In  the  sentence,  "It  being  her,  we  listened  attentively,"  "her"  is  incorrect.  The  par- 
ticiple "being"  is  preceded  by  "it,"  in  the  subjective  case,  and  should  have  the  subjective 
form  of  the  following  pronoun.  It  being  she,  we  listened  attentively,  is  correct.  "  Whom  do 
men  say  that  I  am?  "  should  be,  "  Who  do  men  say  that  I  am? " 

138.  Rule  6. — A  noun  or  a  pronoun  is  in  the  objective  case  when  it  is  the 
object  of  a  verb  or  a  preposition:  as, — 

I  saw  him  of  whom  you  were  speaking. 

139.  Special  Utile. — When  a  pronoun  which  is  used  as  an  object,  is  placed 
at  a  distance  from  its  governing  word,  care  must  be  taken  to  give  the  objective 
form  to  the  pronoun:  as, — 

"They  that  honor  me  I  will  honor,"  is  incorrect:  "they"  is  the  object  of  the  verb  "will 
honor,"  and  should  be  used  in  the  objective  form — "Them  that  honor  me  I  will  honor." 

Exercise  52. — In  the  following  sentences  tell  which  of  the  pronouns  suggested 
should  be  used  and  why: 

1.  t.      -  and  ]         £  are  studying  German  together. 

2.  TVTe   [  being  a  diligent  student,  easily  mastered  the  subject. 

3.  Do  you  mean  Noah  Webster,  \    j"m  [  who  wrote  the  dictionary? 

4.  May  John  and  \         I  have  a  vacation  to-day? 

5.  rpi        [•  that  seek  wisdom  will  find  it. 

6.  She  is  taller  than  ]  me  f  hut  Mary  is  as  tall  as  -J  ^e^" 

7.  This  is  between  you  and  j  °ie' 

8.  If  you  and  if  can  persuade  her  to  act  differently  I  shall  be  glad, 

9.  It  was  not  -j  m    (■  that  said  it. 

10.  W)  10    [  do  you  think  was  present  at  the  last  meeting? 

11.  rp. ie^  [  that  study  grammar  talk  no  better  than  -j      ' 

12.  ^ri1!0111  \  should  I  meet  the  other  day  but  my  old  friend  John. 

13.  I  took  that  short  man  to  be  j  ,  .  " 

Them  ) 

14.  r™        [■  that  are  diligent  will  receive  a  reward. 

15.  I  knew  that  it  was  -j   .  m" 

16.  I  knew  it  to  be  -j  ^ 

17.  Between  you  and  \  ^  [  it  is  my  opinion  that  it  was  -j    ^    (•  that  said  it. 

18.  You  can  find  no  one  better  qualified  for  the  office  than  -j   , 

19.  cier  f  that  is  idle  and  mischievous  deserves  sharp  reproof. 

20.  "v^Q^  [  is  that  child  speaking  to? 


ADJECTIVES.  29 

MISCELLANEOUS   EXAMPLES    FOR    CORRECTION. 

Exercise  53. — Supply  or  omit  the  pronouns  or  make  such  other  changes  as 
may  be  required  in  the  following  sentences: 

1.  Let  each  esteem  others  better  than 

2.  This  is  the  friend I  love. 

3.  Each  contributed  what could. 

4.  Man  is  not  such  a  machine  as  a  watch  or  a  clock,  which  moves  only  as moved. 

5.  She  has  two  sisters,  with  one  of I  am  acquainted. 

6.  Every  person  should  try  to  improve mind. 

7.  The  committee  was  divided  in opinions. 

8.  The  crowd  was  so  great  that  the  judges  with  difficulty  made  their  way  through 

9.  The  commander  of  the  detachment  was  killed,  and  the  soldiers  they  all  fled. 

10.  A  few  remarks  as  to  the  manner  it  should  be  done,  must  suffice. 

11.  They  were  rich  once,  but  are  poor  now. 

12.  This  is  the  hall the  convention  was  held. 

13.  He  was  told  to  be  patient,  which  would  insure  his  success. 

14.  It  isn't  true  what  he  said. 

15.  The  father  he  died,  the  mother  she  followed,  and  the  children  they  were  taken  sick. 

16.  Let  every  one  tHrn  from  his  or  her  evil  ways. 

17.  Those  which  say  so  are  mistaken. 

18.  H£  has  some  friends I  know. 

19.  He  told  that  what  he  knew. 

20.  The  dog was  called  Fido  went  mad. 

21.  The  lion they  were  exhibiting  broke  loose. 

22.  All  what  he  saw  he  described. 

23.  The  horse Alexander  rode  was  called  Bucephalus. 

24.  I  cannot  believe  but  what  I  shall  see  them  men  again. 

25.  There  is  the  house  where  my  uncle  lives. 


LESSON   17. 


Adjectives. 

140.  An  adjective  is  a  word  used  with  a  noun  or  pronoun  to  express  some 
quality  or  limitation  of  the  thing  named:     as, — 

Good  men,  English  language,  five  trees,  that  house. 

141.  Adjectives  maybe  divided  into  two  general  classes:  limiting  adjectives 
and  qualifying* adjectives. 

Note. — Limiting  adjectives  are  sometimes  called  definitive  adjectives,  and  qualifying  adjec- 
tives, descriptive  adjectives. 

142.  A  limiting  adjective  is  one  that  denotes  some  limitation  or  restriction 
of  the  object  named  by  the  noun:  as, — 

A  boy;  this  girl;  some  men;  three  women. 


30  PRACTICAL   ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

143.  Articles. — The  limiting  adjectives,  a,  an,  and  the  are  commonly  called 
article*.  A  or  tin.  which  are  merely  different  forms  of  one,  are  both  called  the 
indefinite  article  :  the,  the  definite  article. 

Notes. — I.  A  is  used  before  the  sound  of  a  consonant,  an  before  that  of  a  vowel;  as,  a  pen, 
a  friend,  an  art,  an  honor. 

II.  The  is  sometimes  an  adverb-  a  is  sometimes  a  preposition:  as,  the  stronger,  the  better; 
"  I  go  a  fishing." 

III.  When  a  is  used  before  few  or  little,  the  meaning  is,  some  at  least.  When  no  article  is 
used,  the  meaning  is  none  or  almost  none:  as,  Few  persons  would  take  the  risk. 

144.  Numeral  Adjectives. — A  numeral  adjective  is  a  limiting  adjective 
that  expresses  a  definite  number:  as, — 

One,  two,  three;  first,  second,  third. 

145.  Numeral  adjectives  are  divided  into  two  classes: 

I.  Cardinal,  which  denote  how  many:  as, — 
Three  men;  forty  trees;  ninety -nine  days. 

II.  Ordinal,  which  denote  ivhich  one:  as, — 
The  first  house;  the  fortieth  line;  the  hundredth  man. 

146.  A  qualifying  adjective  is  one  that  denotes  some  quality  or  attribute  of 
the  object  named  by  the  noun:  as, — 

A  beautiful  scene.     A  mellow  apple.     A  noble  character. 

Exercise  54. — Mention  the  adjectives  in  the  following  sentences,  and  state 
whether  they  are  qualifying  or  limiting: 

1.  We  had  a  jolly  time. 

2.  It  is  called  the  fastest  train  in  the  world. 

3.  He  is  a  warm-hearted  friend. 

4.  The  first  five  buildings  are  fire-proof. 

5.  Fewer  topics  should  be  discussed. 

6.  The  older  leaders  shook  their  heads. 

7.  What  books  do  the  American  people  read? 

8.  A  very  pleasant  story  was  very  pleasantly  told. 

9.  Every  man  may  be  the  architect  of  his  own  fortune. 
10.     This  street  is  wider  than  the  next  one. 

Exercise  55. — Write  ten  other  sentences  each  containing  one  or  more  adjec- 
tives, and  classify  each  adjective. 

147.  Form. — Adjectives  (and  adverbs)  have  but  one  modification,  viz., 
comparison. 

148.  Comparison  is  that  variation  in  the  form  of  adjectives  (and  adverbs) 
by  which  different  degrees  of  quantity  and  quality  may  be  expressed.  There  are 
three  degrees  of  comparison:  the  positive,  the  comparative  and  the  superlative. 

149.  The  positive  degree  of  an  adjective  is  the  adjective  without  modifica- 
tion, used  to  express  simply  the  quantity  or  quality:  as, — 

Sliort  day;  long  hours:  bright  sky;  good  boy. 


ADJECTIVES.  31 

150.  The  comparative  degree  expresses  quantity  or  quality  in  a  higher  or 

lower  degree  in  one  object  than  in  another  or  in  several  taken  together:  as, — 
Gold  is  heavier  than  silver.     He  is  less  skillful  than  his  brother. 

Note.— The  comparative  degree  refers  to  two  things  or  sets  of  things  as  distinct  from  each 
other,  and  implies  that  one  has  more  of  the  quality  than  the  other.  Adjectives  in  the  com- 
parative degree  are  generally  followed  by  than. 

151.  The  superlative  degree  expresses  quantity  or  quality  in  one  object  in 
the  highest  or  lowest  degree  as  compared  with  several  others:  as, — 

Gold  is  the  most  precious  of  the  metals.     He  is  the  smallest  boy. 

152.  How  Compared. — I.  Adjectives  of  one  syllable  are  compared  by 
adding  to  the  positive  er  for  the  comparative,  and  est  for  the  superlative:  as, — 

Positive.  Comparative.  Superlative. 

small  smaller  smallest, 

high  higher  highest. 

II.  Adjectives  of  two  s}Tlables,  ending  with  le  or  y,  or  accented  on  the  second 
syllable,  and  many  ending  in  oio  and  er,  are  also  compared  by  adding  er  or  est:  as, — 

Positive.  Comparative.  Superlative. 
able                                          abler  ablest, 

wealthy  wealthier  wealthiest 

polite  politer  politest 

Note. —  In  adding  these  suffixes,  the  usual  rules  for  spelling  derivative  words  are  to  be 
observed. 

III.  Most  other  adjectives  of  two  syllables,  and  all  adjectives  of  niore  than 
two  syllables,  are  compared  by  placing  more  or  most  before  the  positive:  as, — 

Positive.  Comparative.  Superlative. 

difficult  more  difficult  most  difficult, 

beautiful  more  beautiful  most  beautiful. 

Exercise  56. — Compare  the  following  adjectives: 

wise  merry  sweet  green 

noble  pleasant  shallow  ancient 

healthful  wicked  tender  numerous 

virtuous  industrious  loyal  healthy 

happy  long  cheerful  drowsy 

153.  Irregular  Adjectives. —  Those  adjectives  which  do  not  follow  a 
general  rule  in  forming  their  comparative  and  superlative  degrees  are  said  to  be 
irregular.     The  following  adjectives  are  compared  irregularly. 


°ositive. 

Comparative. 

Superlative. 

good 

better 

best. 

bad,  evil  or  ill 

worse 

worst 

little 

less,  sometimes  lesser 

least. 

much  or  many 

more 

most. 

late 

later,  irregular  latter 

latest  or  last. 

near 

nearer 

nearest  or  next. 

far 

farther 

farthest. 

old 

older  or  elder 

oldest  <n  eldest. 

32  PRACTICAL    ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

Notes. — I.     Much,  little,  less  and  least  are  applied  to  lliiugs  weighed  or  measured;  many  to 
things  that  are  numbered;  mor<  and  most,  to  both. 

II.  Elder  and  eldest  are  used  in  speaking  of  persons  only;  older  and  oldest,  of  persons  or 
things;  fofer  and  latest  refer  to  time;  toWer  and  last,  generally  to  order  in  place. 

III.  Care  should  he  taken  to  avoid  douhle  comparatives  and  superlatives:   as,  A  more 
happier  man  cannot  be  found.     The  most  strictest  watch  was  kept  for  the  fugitives. 

Exercise  ."»7. — Select  or  supply  the  adjectives  that  should  be  used  in  the 
following  .sentences,  and  give  a  reason  for  the  use  of  each: 

1-     A  |  mo"  wojlhier  \  man  3™  can  »ot  fi»(1- 

2.     The  nightingale's  voice  is  the  j  m°gie^eg{eSt  [  i'1  the  grove. 

3-     A  |  worse,-  \  evil  ™aitS  ^ 

4.  James  has  \  t^lr  [  studies  than  Herbert. 

5.  The  boat  will  not  carry  <  _,-„„  [  more  than  five  hundred  passengers. 

c  many  j 

6.  There  are  three  roads  leading  to  the  city  but  this  one  has  the  1  f  w  <,«■  f  turns. 

7.  ££"  j-  books  were  sold  for  a  j  1^Jr  I  sum  than  cost. 

8.  The  first  essay  contained  <    T^J:1  t  words  than  the  second. 

9.  Much time  was  wasted  in  the exercises. 

10.  The board  has  decided  to  put  in  a laboratory  with  all  the 

equipments. 

11.  The class  excursion  up  the river  was  a occasion. 

12.  Seven  hours  on  the  water  in  a steamer,  with  a  very crew, lunches 

served  on  board, music  and  a walk  through  the  park,  made  a day's  outing. 


LESSOR   18. 


Adjectives,  Continued. 

154.  Rule  1. — Adjectives  relate  to  or  modify  nouns  ox  pronouns. 

155.  Special  Rule  I. — Adjectives  that  imply  unity  or  plurality  must  agree 
with  their  nouns  in  number:  as, — 

That  kind,  those  kinds;  twelve  bushels. 

Notes. — I.     " Those  kind  of  books,"  "  ten  bushel,"  "five  foot,"  are  incorrect  expressions, 
for,  when  the  adjective  is  plural,  the  noun  should  always  be  plural. 

TJ.     This  and  these  distinguish  something  as  near  the  speaker  in  time  or  place;  that  and 
those  something  as  not  near,  or,  not  as  near  as  something  else. 

156.  Special  Rule  II. — The  adjectives  each,  every,  either,  neither,  are  used 
with  nouns  in  the  singular  only:  as, — 

Each  of  you  is  expected  to  do  his  duty.     Neither  of  your  plans  is  wise.     If  either  is  to  be 
saved,  let  it  be  the  most  useful.     Let  every  man  do  his  duty. 


ADJECTIVES,    CONTINUED.  33 

Notes.— I.  The  phrase  each  other  is  generally  applied  to  two  objects,  and  one  another  to 
more  than  two:  as,  Helen  and  Julia  should  love  each  other.  George,  Ella  and  Mary  should  be 
kind  to  one  another. 

II.  Either  and  neither  generally  refer  to  two  things  only,  any  and  none  to  more  than  two: 
as,  Either  or  neither  of  the  two;  any  or  none  of  the  five. 

III.  A  or  an  is  sometimes  used  in  the  sense  of  each  and  every :  as,  It  occurs  once  a  year. 
A  is  sometimes  preferred  to  per :  as,  One  dollar  (for)  a  pound. 

157.  Special  Rule  III. — When  two  or  more  adjectives  relate  to  a  noun 
denoting  one  and  the  same  object,  the  article  is  used  before  the  first  only;  but  if 
two  or  more  objects  are  intended,  the  article  must  be  repeated:  as, — 

"A  red  and  white  rose  "  means  one  rose;  "A  red  and  a  white  rose  "  means  two  roses. 

Note. — The  article  may  sometimes  be  omitted  before  the  latter  of  two  adjectives  qualifying 
the  same  noun,  by  using  a  plural  noun:  as,  "  The  Eastern  and  Western  Continents"  for  "the 
Eastern  and  the  Western  Continent." 

158.  Special  Rule  IT. — In  expressing  a  comparison,  if  both  nouns  refer  to 
the  same  person  or  thing,  the  article  is  omitted  before  the  latter  noun,  but  if  they 
refer  to  different  persons  or  things,  the  article  must  be  used  with  each  noun:  as, — 

1.  He  would  make  a  better  bookkeeper  than  stenographer. 

2.  He  would  make  a  better  bookkeeper  than  a  stenographer. 

In  1,  "bookkeeper"  and  "stenographer"  refer  to  the  same  person,  and  the  expression  is 
equal  to  "He  would  make  a  better  bookkeeper  than  (he  would  make  a)  stenographer." 

In  2,  "bookkeeper"  and  "stenographer"  refer  to  different  persons,  and  the  expression  is 
equal  to  "  He  would  make  a  better  bookkeeper  than  a  stenographer  (would  make)." 

159.  Special  Rule  V. — When  the.  nouns  in  a  series  denote  things  that  are 
to  be  distinguished  from  each  other  or  emphasized,  the  article  should  be  repeated 
before  each  noun:  as, — 

It  was  the  dishonor,  not  the  loss  that  troubled  him. 

160.  Special  Rule  VI. — The  indefinite  article  should  be  repeated  before 
each  of  several  nouns  when  the  same  form  of  it  would  not  agree  with  all:  as, — 

An  apple,  an  orange,  and  a  plum. 

A  fisherman,  a  sailor,  and  an  oysterman. 

161.  Special  Rule  Til.— In  a  scries  of  adjectives  of  equal  rank,  the  shortest 
and  simplest  should  generally  be  placed  first:  as, — 

He  is  an  older  and  more  respectable  man,  not  a  more  respectable  and  an  older  man. 
Note. — The  position  of  the  adjective  should  be  such  as  to  show  clearly  what  it  modifies: 
as,  "A  box  of  fresh  berries,"  instead  of  "A  fresh  box  of  berries." 

16*2.     Special  Rule  VIII. — The  comparative  degree  is  used  when  two  obj 
or  classes  of  objects  are  compared;  the  superlative,  when  two  or  more  are  com- 
pared: as, — 

Henry  is  taller  than  James.     This  is  the  longest  day  of  the  year. 

Note.— Adjectives  that  are  of  absolute  or  superlative  signification  cannot,  if  taken  in  their 
strict  sense,  be  compared:  as,  round,  empty,  perfect,  universal. 

163.     Special  Rule  IX. — When  the  comparative  degree  is  used,  the  latter 
term  of  comparison  should  never  include  the  former:  as, — 
"New  York  is  larger  than  any  city  in  America  "is  incorrect;  it  should  be  "than  any  other  city." 


3-1  PRACTICAL    ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

164.  Special  Kule  X. — When  the  superlative  degree  is  used,  the  latter  term 
of  com  pari  sou  should  never  exclude  the  former:  as, — 

"  Profanity  is,  of  all  other  vices,  the  most  inexcusable,"  is  incorrect;  it  should  be  "of  all  vices." 

165.  Special  Hule  XII. — An  adjective  should  not  be  used  where  the  con- 
struction requires  an  adverb:  as, — 

"He  writes  rapid,"  should  be,  "  He  writes  rapidly." 

Exercise  58. — Correct  all  errors  in  the  following  sentences  and  give  a  reason 
for  each  correction : 

1.  If  you  are  fond  of  those  sort  of  things,  you  may  have  them. 

2.  There  was  a  blot  on  the  first  or  second  pages. 

3.  These  kind  of  books  can  hardly  be  obtained. 

4.  Twenty  heads  of  cattle  passed  along  the  road. 

5.  Bring  me  a  hot  dish  of  soup. 

6.  A  man  who  is  prudent  and  industrious,  will  by  that  means  increase  his  fortune. 

7.  The  first  and  second  verse  are  better  than  the  third  and  fourth. 

8.  Them  books  were  sold  for  a  lesser  price  than  they  cost. 

9.  A  more  agreeabler  companion  you  cannot  find. 

10.  Draw  that  line  more  perpendicular. 

11.  That  ship  is  larger  than  any  of  its  class. 

12.  You  will  never  have  another  such  a  chance. 

13.  His  labors  were  crowned  with  the  most  extraordinary,  deserved,  and  continuous  success 
14  He  was  a  patriotic,  brave,  and  prudent  leader. 

15.  The  Old  and  the  New  Testaments. 

16.  There  is  a  more  agreeable  and  easier  way. 

17.  The  path  of  truth  is  a  plain  and  a  safe  one. 

18.  Here  are  five,  but  neither  of  them  are  going. 

19.  He  is  a  more  effective  writer  than  a  speaker. 

20.  He  has  a  most  spotless  reputation. 


"LESSOR    19. 


Some  Current  Misuses  of  the  Adjective. 

166.  There  is  perhaps  no  other  class  of  words  that  suffers  so  much  from 
strained,  inapt,  and  erroneous  uses  to  which  it  is  put  as  the  adjective.  The  fore- 
going exercises  on  the  adjective  exhibit  some  of  the  most  common  forms  of  errors 
in  its  use.  There  are  others  not  here  illustrated,  but  those  given  will  serve  to 
show  how  easy  it  is  to  make  mistakes  in  the  use  of  this  part  of  speech.  There  is 
one  form  of  error  so  prevalent,  and  so  peculiar  to  the  adjective  as  to  warrant 
special  mention,  viz.,  the  incorrect  use  of  such  words  as  elegant,  lovely,  awful,  etc. 

Illustration  I. — The  adjective  elega?it,  which  means  pleasing  by  propriety  or  symmetry, 
refined,  graceful,  polished,  etc.,  is  often  incorrectly  coupled  with  such  nouns  as  sunrise,  snow- 
storm, strawberries,  bread,  etc.,  because  the  speaker's  information  of  the  meaning  of  the  word 
elegant  is  not  accurate  enough  to  prevent  his  choosing  this  word,  most  effective  when  properly 
applied,  and  trying  to  make  it  express  his  feeling  or  opinion  in  some  striking  way. 


ADJECTIVES,    CONTINUED.  35 

It  would  be  appropriate  to  speak  of  a  magnificent  sunrise,  delicious  berries,  etc.,  but  tiegant 
should  be  used  only  with  such  nouns  as  grounds,  surroundings,  furniture,  fittings,  display, 
collection,  spread,  steamer,  mansion,  watch,  carriage,  etc.,  where  taste,  harmony,  or  propriety 
are  apparent;  or  with  address,  manners,  style,  action,  bearing,  etc.,  where  polish,  grace  or 
refinement,  are  seen.  It  would  be  proper  to  speak  of  an  elegant  lawn,  but  not,  elegant  grass; 
of  an  elegant  bouquet,  but  not,  an  elegant  rosebud;  of  an  elegant  sleigh,  but  not,  an  elegant 
sleighride  ;  of  elegant  skating  (meaning  the  act),  but  not,  elegant  ice  (unless  artificially  so). 

Illustration  II.— Another  of  these  misused  adjectives  is  lovely.  We  hear  of  lovely  cake 
and  ice  cream;  of  lovely  breakfasts,  and  dinners,  and  teas;  of  lovely  ribbons,  and  jackets,  and 
dresses,  and  so  on,  without  any  distinction  between  what  may  be  loved  or  may  excite  love,  and 
what  may  be  only  liked  or  enjoyed.  Lovely  is  an  appropriate  modifier  of  such  nouns  as  person, 
life,  disposition,  day,  scene,  sky,  etc.  We  may  speak  of  lovely  music,  but  not  of  a  lovely  piano; 
of  a  lovely  woman,  but  not  of  a  lovely  bonnet. 

Illustration  III.— Another  defect  in  the  use  of  this  class  of  words  is  the  tendency  to  repeat 
a  statement  by  making  several  adjectives  of  similar  meaning  modify  the  same  noun.  We  are 
apt  to  do  this  when  we  try  to  heighten  or  intensify  a  statement:  as,  "His  success  was  most 
unusual,  extraordinary,  and  unprecedented." 

Note. — We  must  study  our  dictionaries  and  books  of  synonyms,  and  note  carefully  how  good 
irr iters  and  speakers  use  their  adjectives,  or  we  shall  not  be  competent  to  discriminate  between  the 
correct  and  proper  use  of  these  words  and  those  false  or  exaggerated  expressions  we  hear  so  often. 

Exercise  59. — Criticise  the  following  expressions  and  give  reasons  for  the 
changes  you  would  suggest: 

1.  We  had  an  awful  nice  time. 

2.  What  splendid  butter  that  is! 

3.  I  made  a  horrid  blunder  in  footing  the  account. 

4.  A  tremendous  turnip. 

5.  A  colossal  apple. 

6.  The  new  steamer  sailed  with  gigantic  speed. 

7.  A  terrific  appetite. 

8.  A  horrible  grammar  lesson. 

ADDITIONAL   EXERCISES. 

Exercise  60. — Supply  as  many  other  appropriate  nouns  as  you  can  for  each  of 
the  following  adjectives: 

1.  Colossal  statues,  ignorance,  blunder. 

2.  Amazing  speed,  endurance,  appetite. 

3.  Awful  crash,  thunder  storm,  accident. 

4.  Splendid  outfit,  generalship,  uniform. 

5.  Immense  cruiser,  loss,  ranch. 

0.  Tremendous  excitement,  issue,  slaughter. 

7.  Enormous  profits,  elephant,  size. 

8.  Prodigious  strength,  expense,  waste. 

9.  Gigantic  fraud,  undertaking,  strides. 

10.     Expensive  living,  furnishings,  amusements. 

Exercise  61. — Supply  as  many  other  appropriate  adjectives  as  you  can  for 

each  of  the  following  nouns: 

1.  The  water  was  pure,  cooling,  refreshing,  health-giving,  excellent,  clear,  cold,  free, 
sparkling,  beautiful,  transparent,  wholesome,  abundant,  scarce,  distilled,  bitter,  filtered,  hot. 
disturb  id,  welcome,  adequate. 


36  PRACTICAL    ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

3.     His  success  was  rapid,  signal,  uninterrupted,  marvelous,  exceptional,  complete,  unex 
pected,  gradual,  permanent,  temporary,  merited,  remarkable,  startling,  phenomenal. 

Exercise  62. — Name  some  adjectives  that  can  boused  with  the  following  nouns: 

1.  Business,  speed,  rose,  ocean,  war,  Washington,  bicycle. 

2.  Sunset,  day,  ambition,  ink,  peace,  pardon,  engine,  stars,  clouds. 

Exercise  6J5. — Use  in  sentences  some  of  the  following  adjectives: 

1.  Commodious,  congenial,  gallant,  incredible,  incredulous,  efficieut,  effective,  annual. 

2.  Daily,  coercive,  exemplary,  defective,  deceptive,  dishonest,  trivial,  useless,  valued. 

3.  Valuable,  unable,  conciliatory,  energetic,  elaborate,  bountiful,  curious,  tasty,  delicate. 

4.  Generous,  healthy,  healthful,  artistic,  beneficial,  consistent,  impulsive,  emphatic. 

5.  Probable,  extreme,  severe,  flippant,  precise,  concise,  subordinate,  spontaneous. 

6.  Luminous,  illustrious,  radiant,  plausible,  extravagant,  acute,  difficult. 

7.  Sole,  conducive,  onerous,  arduous,  pecuniary,  financial,  jubilant,  majestic. 

Exercise  64. — Construct  sentences  using  as  the  subject  in  each  case  one  or 
more  of  the  nouns  modified  by  one  or  more  of  the  adjectives  found  in  the  fol 
lowing  lists: 

Adjectives.  Nouns. 

1.  Stringent,  defensive,  explanatory.  1.     Request,  date,  hearers,  vote. 

2.  Arbitrary,  urgent,  original.  2.     Elements,  notes,  demeanor,  regard. 

3.  Miscellaneous,  necessary,  approximate.  3.     Arrival,  tactics,  plan,  change. 

4.  Inconsiderate,  respectful,  brilliant.  4.     Policy,  action,  decision,  arrangements. 

5.  Unanimous,  essential,  heroic,  radical.  5.     Distance,  rules,  exercise. 

6.  Hasty,  evident,  solicitous,  opportune.  6.     Intention,  behavior,  measures. 


LESSOR   20. 


Verbs. 

167.  A  rerb  is  a  word  used  to  express  action,  or  being  (existence),  or  state  of 
being:  as, — 

Boys  run  to  school.  Horses  draw  loads.  There  are  orange  groves  in  California.  Oranges 
are  juicy.     There  are  boys  and  boys.     Boys  are  active. 

Exercise  65. — Determine  which  verbs  in  the  following  sentences  express 
action,  and  which  being,  or  state  of  being. 

1.  The  morning  was  beautiful. 

2.  The  band  played  stirring  airs. 

3.  Men  think  and  dream  and  plan. 

4.  The  clock  hangs  on  the  wall. 

5.  The  clock  ticks  and  strikes. 

6.  The  storm  approaches. 

7.  See  how  the  trees  sway. 

8.  The  company  formed  on  the  parade  grounds. 

9.  The  grounds  were  decorated  with  flairs  an<<  bunting. 


VERBS.  37 

10.  The  company's  right  rested  on  Division  street. 

11.  The  men  presented  a  striking  appearance. 

12.  They  presented  arms  when  the  governor  rode  past. 

168.  Classes. — With  respect  to  their  use,  verbs  are  divided  into  three  classes, 
transitive,  intransitive,  and  attributive. 

169.  A  transitive  verb  is  one  that  requires  an  object  to  complete  its  meaning: 

as, — 

The  hunter  killed  a  bear.     (Killed  requires  the  object  "bear"  to  complete  its  meaning.) 
The  student  learned  his  lesson.     That  house  has  seven  gables. 

170.  An  intransitive  verb  is  one  that  does  not  require  an  object  to  com- 
plete its  meaning:  as, — 

Flowers  bloom      Grass  grows.     The  wind  bloios  furiously. 

171.  An  attributive  verb  is  one  that  makes  an  assertion  and  connects  its 
attribute  with  its  subject:  as, — 

Snow  is  white.     Man  is  mortal. 

Notes. — I.     The  term  attributive  is  here  used  to  signify  a  quality  or  other  limitation  asserted. 
II.     Intransitive  verbs  become  attributive  when  the  sense  is  incomplete  without  an  attribute: 
as,  It  looks  round.     It  appears  new. 

Exercise  66. — State  whether  the  verbs  in  the  following  sentences  are  transi- 
tive, intransitive,  or  attributive. 

1.  The  sky  is  cloudless. 

2.  The  hill  looks  steep. 

3.  We  took  a  long  ride  yesterday. 

4.  The  old  system  trained  the  intellect. 

5.  He  told  the  truth  at  all  times. 

6.  From  here,  the  tower  looks  tall  and  slender. 

7.  We  enjoyed  the  ride  on  the  lake. 

8.  The  new  teacher  commands  respect. 

9.  The  sun  shines  brightly  on  the  hillside. 

10.  Only  long  continued  and  patient  effort  brings  success. 

MODIFICATIONS    OF   THE    VERB. 

172.  The  modifications  of  the  verb  are  voice,  mode,  tense,  person  and  number. 

173.  Toice  is  a  form  of  the  transitive  verb  expressing  whether  the  subject 
names  the  actor  or  the  recipient  of  the  action. 

171.     There  are  two  voices,  the  active  voice  and  the  passive  voice. 

175.  The  active  voice  represents  the  subject  as  acting  upon  an  object:  as, — 
John  struck  James.     The  boy  was  studying.     The  cat  caught  the  mouse. 

176.  The  passive  voice  represents  the  subjecl  as  receiving  the  act:  as, — 
James  was  struck  by  John.     The  mouse  was  caught.     The  lesson  was  studied. 

Notes.—  I.     The  passive  voice  is  formed  by  prefixing  some  form  of  the  neuter  verb  to  be 
to  the  perfect  participle  of  a  transitive  verb:  as,  I  am  struck.     The  champions  were  defeated. 

11.  A  verb  in  the  active  voice  is  changed  into  the  passive  by  making  the  direct  object  iD 
the  active  the  subject  in  the  passive:  as, — 


PRACTICAL    ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

Active  Voice.  Passive  Voice. 

The  men  gave  three  cheers.  Three  cheers  were  given  by  the  men. 

The  dog  saved  the  child's  life.  The  child's  life  was  saved  by  the  dog. 

The    secretary    should    have    notified  the  The  members  should  have  been  notified  by 

members.  the  secretary. 

1??.  Intransitive  verbs  can  have  no  distinction  of  voice  because  they  have 
no  object  which  can  be  used  as  the  subject  in  the  passive.  Their  form  is  gener- 
ally active:  as, — 

I  stand.     I  run. 

Note. — A  few  are  used  also  in  the  passive  form,  but  with  the  same  sense  as  in  the  active: 
as,  He  is  come,  for,  He  has  come.     They  are  gone,  for,  They  have  gone. 

Exercise  <>7. — Give  the  voice  of  each  of  the  verbs  in  the  following  sentences: 

1.  "The  spider  up  there  defied  despair; 
He  conquered,  and  why  shouldn't  I?" 

2.  "And  Belgium's  capital  had  gathered  then  her  beauty  and  her  chivalry." 

3.  The  lost  child  cried  bitterly. 

4.  The  little  boy  cried  himself  to  sleep. 

5.  We  ran  a  race. 

6.  We  ran  several  miles. 

7.  He  was  appointed  overseer. 

8.  The  machine  was  run  by  steam. 

9.  I  was  deceived  by  the  false  signals. 

10.  Socrates  said  that  he  who  might  be  better  employed  was  idle. 

11.  Get  wisdom. 

12.  I  can  do  no  more  to-day. 

13.  The  carriage  was  drawn  by  four  horses. 

14.  The  audience  was  composed  of  children. 

15.  The  committee  to  whom  was  referred  the  matter  of  engaging  a  speaker  for  Decoration 
Day  has  secured  the  services  of  Dr.  Wise.  He  is  an  able  man,  and  the  people  may  well  con- 
gratulate themselves  on  their  good  fortune. 


LESSOR"   21. 


Mode. 

178.  Mode   is  that  modification  of  a  verb  which  denotes  the  manner  of 
asserting  the  action  or  being. 

179.  There  are  five  modes,  the  indicative  mode,  the  potential  mode,  the  impera- 
tive mode,  the  infinitive  mode,  and  the  subjunctive  mode. 

180.  The  indicative  mode  asserts  the  action  or  being  as  a  fact:  as, — 
We  breathe.     The  weather  is  delightful. 

181.  The  potential  mode  asserts  the  power,  liberty,  possibility,  or  necessity 
of  the  action  or  being:  as, — 

We  can  breathe.     We  must  breathe. 


MODE.  39 

Note. — The  potential  mode  uses  may,  can,  must,  might,  could,  would,  or  slwuld,  as  part  of 
the  verb. 

182.     The  imperative  mode  requests,  permits,  entreats  or  commands:  as, — 
Write  when  convenient.     Pass  this  way.     Do  not  venture  on  the  bridge  now.     Forward, 
march. 

Note. — The  subject  of  a  verb  in  the  imperative  mode  is  always  thou  or  you  understood. 

Is3.  The  infinitive  mode  expresses  the  action  or  being  without  affirming 
it:  as, — 

To  write;  to  hate  written.     He  rose  to  speak. 

Notes. — I.  Since  the  action  or  being  is  merely  named  in  a  general  way  and  not  asserted 
of  any  thing  in  particular,  verbs  in  this  mode  can  have  neither  person  nor  number.  A  verb 
is  said  to  be  finite  when  it  has  person  and  number. 

II.  The  infinitive  may  usually  be  known  by  the  sign  to  placed  before  it.  This  sign  is  omitted 
after  the  active  verbs  bid,  dare,  feel,  let,  see,  make,  need,  and  hear;  and  sometimes  after  have, 
please,  and  help ;  also  after  behold,  mark,  observe,  watch,  view,  and  other  equivalents  of  see:  as, 
Bid  him  go.  I  dare  do  it.  Let  her  go.  We  saw  the  sun  rise.  Do  not  help  him  learn  his  lesson. 
See  him  run.  They  \»ould  have  us  stay.  Also  after  than  and  as  when  used  in  making  com- 
parisons- as,  We  may  as  well  go  as  stay  here.     I  would  rather  go  than  stay. 

III.  The  preposition  is  almost  always  used  after  the  passive  form  of  these  verbs,  and  occa- 
sionally after  the  active:  as,  She  was  heard  to  say  that  it  is  not  true.  You  cannot  see  to  read. 
I  dare  you  to  do  it. 

IV.  The  infinitive  is  sometimes  used:  1.  As  an  abstract  noun.  It  may  then  be  the  subject 
or  the  attribute  of  a  sentence;  it  may  be  in  apposition  with  a  noun,  or  it  may  be  the  object  of  a 
transitive  verb  or  a  preposition:  as,  To  lie  is  disgraceful.  To  work  is  to  pray.  Delightful 
task,  to  rear  the  tender  thought.  I  love  to  read.  He  is  about  to  sell.  2.  It  may  also  be  used 
as  an  adjective:  as,  I  have  two  letters  to  write.  3.  It  may  be  used  as  an  adverb:  as,  I  write 
to  inform  you  of  the  change.  4.  It  may  be  used  independently:  as,  To  tell  the  truth,  I  do  not 
favor  your  friend's  course. 

V.  The  infinitive  may  govern  an  object,  or  be  modified  by  an  adverb  or  adjective:  as,  He 
is  learning  to  read  Latin.     He  is  afraid  to  go  forward.     To  play  is  pleasant. 

Exercise  68. — Supply  appropriate  infinitives  in  the  following  sentences,  and 
tell  how  each  infinitive  is  used: 

1.  He  was  afraid the  responsibility. 

2.  She  was  prevailed  upon the  work. 

3.  I  shall  be  glad you  some  assistance. 

4.  Such  a  report  ought adopted. 

•j.  Do  not  fail for  duty  to  morrow. 

6.  How  impatient  we  are ahead. 

7.  We  are  going -.  ---  better. 

8.  I  cannot  make  the  top 

9.  What  have  you for  your  work  ? 

10.  We  could  not  hear  you 

11.  Both  yachts  seemed at  the  turn. 

12.  The  judge  proceeded --  the  jury. 

13 the  subject  thoroughly  one  must  begin  at  the  foundation. 

14 myself  from  slipping  I  held  the  rope  tightly. 

15 plainly,  I  must  say  I  cannot  agree  to  the  proposal. 


40  PRACTICAL    ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

1^4.  The  subjunctive  mode  expresses  a  future  contingency,  supposition, 
wish,  etc.:  as, — 

If  he  be  elected,  he  will  make  a  good  officer.  If  I  were  to  undertake  the  work,  I  should  put 
in  more  machines.     Oh!  that  I  knew  where  I  might  find  him. 

NOTES.— I.  A  verb  in  this  mode  is  generally  preceded  by  one  of  the  conjunctions,  if,  that, 
though,  lest,  or  unless,  except,  whether,  till. 

II.  The  conjunction  or  word  expressing  condition,  is  sometimes  omitted :  as,  Had  I  written, 
I  could  not  have  received  an  answer  in  time.     Were  I  in  your  place,  I  would  not  go. 

III.  The  subjunctive  mode  uses  be  instead  of  am,  are  and  is;  were  instead  of  was,  and 
throughout  the  same  tense  usually  undergoes  no  change  in  form:  as,  If  I  be;  if  I  were;  if 
he  read, 

IV.  There  is  a  difference  of  opinion  among  grammarians  regarding  the  use  of  the  subjunc- 
tive, some  holding  that  it  should  be  dropped  entirely.  Without  attempting  to  discuss  the 
question,  we  would  simply  say  that  while  there  is  perplexity  as  to  some  of  its  uses,  there  are 
others  so  clear  and  so  generally  observed  by  good  speakers  and  writers,  that  they  should  be 
brought  to  the  attention  of  students  with  as  much  care  as  any  other  accepted  forms  of  speech. 

THE    SUBJUNCTIVE    AND    INDICATIVE   MODES    COMPARED. 

185.  The  following  comparison  of  subjunctive  and  indicative  forms  will  serve 
to  make  the  above  note  plain: 

Subjunctive  Mode.  Indicative  Mode. 

1.  If  the  applicant  merit  commendation  do  1.  If  the  applicant  merits  commendation  his 
not  withhold  it.     (Remains  to  be  seen.)  letter  will  show  it.     (It  is  claimed  that  he  does.) 

2.  If  he  understand  the  problem  he  will  2.  If  he  understands  the  problem  why  does 
try  to  explain  it.  he  hesitate? 

3.  If  the  weather  be  warm  we  shall  start  3.  If  the  weather  is  warm  the  water  may 
next  week.     (Weather  may  be  cold.)  be  cold.     (Weather  admitted  to  be  warm.) 

4.  If  he  become  rich  he  may  grow  selfish.  4.  If  he  is  rich  he  is  not  selfish.  (No  doubt 
(A  doubt  about  the  riches.)  about  the  riches.) 

5.  If  I  were  in  your  place  I  would  not  try.  5.  If  I  was  in  your  place  I  did  not  try  to 
(A  supposition.)  imitate  you.     (A  fact.) 

6.  If  he  decline  your  offer  to-day  try  him  6.  If  he  declines  your  offer  to  day  why  do 
again  to-morrow.  you  think  he  will  accept  it  to-morrow? 

7.  Though  he  deceive  me  I  will  befriend  7.  I  will  do  what  I  can  for  him  though  he 
him.  deceives  me,  I  know. 

8.  If  he  possess  the  qualifications,  his  sue-  8.  How  can  he  fail  if  he  possesses  the  quali- 
cess  is  assured.  fications? 

9.  If  good,  earnest  effort  be  requisite  the  9.  If  good,  earnest  effort  is  requisite,  why- 
effort  shall  not  be  wanting.  is  it  not  supplied? 

10.  Were  it  the  intention  of  France  to  10.  If  it  was  the  intention  of  France  to 
submit  the  matter  to  arbitration,  the  action  of  submit  the  matter  to  arbitration,  the  fact  still 
her  warships  in  crossing  the  bar  is  incompre-  remains  that  her  warships  have  crossed  the 
hensible.  bar. 

Exercise  69. — Determine  the  mode  of  each  of  the  verbs  in  the  following 
sentences: 

1.  If  I  am  correctly  informed  the  number  was  5000. 

2.  If  I  am  not  mistaken  he  said  he  would  return  to-day. 

3.  I  still  speak  to  him  though  he  snubs  me  every  time. 


TENSE.  41 

4.  If  he  return  give  him  this  note. 

5.  fehe  cannot  enter  unless  she  pays. 

6.  If  he  has  said  so,  what  of  it? 

7.  If  he  have  said  so,  I  shall  be  much  surprised. 

8.  Should  any  further  information  be  desired  it  will  be  furnished  on  application 

9.  If  any  further  information  has  been  asked  for,  we  have  not  known  of  it. 

10.  "  If  prosody  is  a  part  of  grammar,  why  should  the  latter  not  include  rhetoric?  " 

11.  If  he  continue  to  improve  he  will  soon  be  a  fair  writer. 

12.  Oh!  that  I  were  there  to  help  you. 

13.  "My  lords,  my  lords,"  the  captive  said,  "were  I  but  once  more  free,  *  *  *  *  that 
parchment  would  I  scatter  wide!" 

14.  Is  it  necessary  that  the  work  be  done  again? 

15.  Had  I  known  of  this  sooner  I  could  have  protected  you. 

Notes.— I.  The  distinction  between  a  future  contingency  which  requires  a  verb  in  the 
subjunctive,  and  the  conditional  statement  of  a  fact,  which  requires  a  verb  in  the  indicative, 
is  a  very  nice  one:  thus, — 

"  If  he  continue  to  improve  (he  may  not)  he  will  in  time  become  a  fair  scholar." 

"If  he  continues  to  improve  (and  it  is  assumed  that  he  will)  he  will  soon  become  a  fair 
scholar." 

II.  The  tendency  6*f  modern  usage  is  to  disregard  the  distinction.  When  there  is  doubt  as 
to  whether  the  indicative  or  subjunctive  mode  is  required,  use  the  indicative. 


LESSOR   22. 


Tense. 

186.  Tense  is  that  modification  of  the  verb  which  expresses  the  time  of  the 

action  or  the  being. 

187.  There  are  six  tenses,  the  p?-esent  tense,  the  past  tense,  the  future  tense. 
the  present  perfect  tense,  the  past  perfect  tense,  and  the  future  perfect  tense. 

188.  The  present  tense  denotes  the  action  or  being  as  present:  as, — 
We  write.     We  think.     He  studies. 

Notes.— I.  The  present  tense  should  always  be  used  to  express  a  general  principle  or  a 
universal  truth:  as,  "We  were  told  that  the  air  has  weight,"  [not  had].  The  doctor  said  in 
his  lecture  that  fever  always  produces  thirst  (not  produced). 

II.  It  is  also  used  to  denote  what  frequently  or  habitually  takes  place:  as,  He  travels  for 
our  Arm.  We  go  home  twice  a  week.  Also,  in  describing  past  events  to  give  force  or  anima- 
tion: as,  "Caesar  leaves  Gaul,  crosses  the  Rubicon,  and  enters  Italy." 

189.  The  past  tense  denotes  the  action  or  being  as  past:  as, — 
We  wrote.     We  thought.     He  studied. 

190.  The  future  tense  denotes  the  action  or  being  as  yet  to  come:  as, — 
We  shall  write.     We  shall  think.     He  will  study. 


i2  PRACTICAL    ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

191.  The  present  perfect  tense  denotes  the  action  or  being  as  completed 
at  the  preseni  I  ime:  as. — 

We  have  written.     We  have  thought.     He  has  studied. 

192.  The  past  perfect  tense  denotes  the  action  or  being  as  completed  at 
some  past  time:  as, — 

We  had  written.     We  had  thought.     He  had  studied. 

11)3.  The  future  perfect  tense  denotes  the  action  or  being  to  be  completed 
at  some  future  time:  as, — 

We  shall  have  written.     We  shall  have  thought.     He  will  have  studied. 

TENSES    IN    ALL   THE    MODES. 

194.  The  indicative  mode  has  six  tenses,  the  present,  the  past,  the  future,  the 
present  perfect,  the  past  perfect,  and  the  future  perfect. 

The  potential  mode  has  four  tenses,  the  present,  the  past,  the  present  perfect, 
and  the  past  perfect. 

The  imperative  mode  has  one  tense,  the  present. 

The  subjunctive  mode  has  three  tenses,  the  present,  the  past,  and  the  past  perfect. 

The  infinitive  mode  has  two  tenses,  the  present,  and  the  present  perfect. 

Notes — I.  When  a  verb,  followed  by  an  infinitive,  refers  to  a  future  act  or  circumstance, 
the  present,  not  the  perfect,  infinitive  should  be  used:  as,  I  intended  to  go  [not  to  haw  gone]. 
I  expected  to  see  you  [not  to  have  seen  you], 

II.  Tense  does  not  properly  belong  to  the  infinitive  mode.  Its  tenses  are  mere  forms, 
having  no  regard  to  time. 

SIGNS   OF   THE   TENSES. 

195.  Indicative  Mode. — Present  and  past,  no  sign.  Present  perfect,  have 
or  has.  Past  perfect,  had.  Future,  shall  or  will.  Future  perfect,  shall  have  or 
will  have. 

Note. — The  auxiliaries  do  in  the  parent  tense,  and  did  in  the  past,  are  used  to  give  emphasis : 
as,  I  do  assure  you.     He  did  say  so. 

196.  Potential  Mode. — Present,  may,  can,  or  must.  Past,  might,  could, 
would,  or  should.  Present  perfect,  may  have,  can  have,  or  must  have.  Past  per- 
fect, might  have,  could  have,  would  have,  or  should  have. 

NUMBER   AND    PERSON. 

197.  Number  and  person,  as  applied  to  verbs,  indicate  only  the  form  to  be 
used  with  each  number  and  person  of  the  subject. 

REGULAR  AND  IRREGULAR  VERBS. 

198.  Verbs  are  divided,  in  respect  to  form,  into  regular  and  irregular. 

199.  A  regular  verb  is  one  that  forms  its  past  tense  in  the  indicative  mode 
active,  and  its  past  participle,  by  adding  ed  to  the  present:  as, — 

Present,  act;  past,  acted;  past  participle,  acted. 


TENSE. 


43 


200.  An  irregular  verb  is  one  that  does  not  form  its  past  tense  in  the  indic- 
ative mode  active,  and  its  past  participle  by  adding  ed  to  the  present:  as, — 

Present,  write;  past,  wrote ;  past  participle,  written. 

201.  The  following  list  gives  the  principal  parts  of  about  one-fourth  of  the 
irregular  verbs  of  the  English  language: 

List  of  Irregular  Verbs. 


Present. 

Past. 

Past  Participle. 

Be  or  am, 

was, 

been. 

Begin, 

began, 

begun. 

Blow, 

blew, 

blown. 

Break, 

broke, 

broken. 

Choose, 

chose, 

chosen. 

Come, 

came, 

come. 

Do, 

did, 

done. 

Draw, 

drew, 

drawn. 

Drink, 

drank, 

drunk  or  drank. 

Drive, 

drove, 

driven. 

Eat, 

ate, 

eaten. 

Fall, 

fell, 

fallen. 

Fly. 

flew, 

flown. 

Freeze, 

froze, 

frozen. 

Go, 

went, 

gone. 

Get,  (For) 

got, 

got  or  gotten. 

Give,  (For) 

gave, 

given. 

Grow, 

grew, 

grown. 

Have, 

had, 

had. 

Know, 

knew, 

known. 

Lay, 

laid, 

laid. 

Lie  (to  rest), 

lay, 

lain. 

Ride, 

rode, 

ridden. 

Ring, 

rang  or  rung, 

rung. 

Rise, 

rose, 

risen. 

Run, 

ran, 

run. 

See, 

saw. 

seen. 

Set, 

set, 

set. 

Sit, 

sat, 

sat. 

Shake, 

shook, 

shaken. 

Sing, 

sang  or 

sung, 

sung. 

Slay, 

slew, 

slain. 

Speak, 

spoke, 

spoken. 

Steal, 

stole, 

stolen. 

Take, 

took, 

taken. 

Tear, 

tore, 

torn. 

Throw, 

threw, 

thrown. 

Wear, 

wore, 

worn. 

Write, 

wrote, 

written. 

Note. — Regular 

verbs, 

and  some  irregular 

verbs, 

have  the  same 

form  in  the  past  tense  and 

past  participle,  and  this  accounts, 

perhaps,  for 

frequent 

mistakes  in 

using  those  irregular  verbs 

(like  many  in  the  foregoing  list)  in  which  the  past  tense 

and  past  participle  forms  are  different. 

44  PRACTICAL    ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

*J0*2.  Rule. — Where  these  forms  differ,  the  past  participle  is  used  when  the 
verb  is  in  any  of  the  perfect  tenses,  and  also  in  all  the  tenses  of  verbs  in  the 
passive  voice:  as. — 

We  were  driven  (not  drove)  through  the  park.  We  have  cliosen  (not  have  chose)  our  leader. 
The  coat  was  torn  (not  was  tore). 

Exercise  7<). — Supply  appropriate  irregular  verbs  in  the  following  sentences: 

1.  The  bird  has . 

2.  lie  has to  the  city. 

3.  I him  mail  the  letter. 

4.  We  have him  for  many  years. 

5.  The  boys  have the  cherries. 

6.  The  letter  will  be 

7.  The  river  has |  J^™  j-  high  water  mark. 

8.  The  bell  will  be at  12  o'clock. 

9.  The  dog ashore. 

10.  The  prisoner his  bonds. 

11.  The  burglar softly  up  the  stairs. 

12.  I  have to  my  friend  on  that  subject. 

18.  Have  you the  footings? 

14.  The  blacksmith the  iron. 

15.  The  cloth  is  very  closely 

Exercise  71. — Compose  sentences  containing  the  past  tense  and  past  participle 

forms  of  some  of  the  following  verbs. 

Note. — The  verbs  given  below  are  not  in  the  foregoing  list,  but  if  any  of  the  forms  are  not 
familiar  to  the  student  they  can  be  found  in  an  unabridged  dictionary. 

1.  Awake,  bear  (to  carry),  beat,  bend,  bereave,  beseech,  bid,  bind,  bite,  bleed,  bring. 

2.  Build,  burn,  burst,  buy,  cast,  catch,  cleave  (to  split),  cling,  cost,  creep,  crow,  cut. 

3.  Dare  (to  venture),  deal,  dig,  feed,  feel,  fight,  find,  flee,  fling,  forsake,  gild,  grind. 

4.  Hang  (to  suspend,  not  to  execute),  hear,  hide,  hit,  hold,  hurt,  keep,  kneel. 

5.  Lead,  leave,  lend,  let,  lose,  make,  mean,  meet. 

6.  Pay,  put,  quit,  read,  rend,  rid. 

7.  Say,  seek,  sell,  send,  shed,  shine,  shoe,  shoot,  show,  shrink,  shut,  sink,  sleep. 

8.  Slide,  sling,  slit,  smite,  sow,  speed,  spend,  spill,  spin,  split,  spread,  spring,  stand. 

9.  Stay,  stick,  sting,  stride,  strike,  string,  strive,  swear,  sweep,  swing. 

10.     Teach,  tell,  think,  thrust,  tread,  weave,  weep,  wet,  win,  wind,  work,  wring. 


LESSOR   23. 


Conjugation. 

203.  Conjugation  is  the  regular  arrangement  of  all  the  forms  of  the  verb. 

204.  The  principal  parts  of  a  verb  are  those  from  which  the  other  parts 
are  derived.  They  are  the  present  indicative  or  the  present  infinitive,  the  past 
indicative,  the  present  participle,  and  the  past  participle. 


CONJUGATION. 


45 


205.  Auxiliary  verbs  are  those  that  help  in  the  conjugation  of  other  verbs. 
The  auxiliaries  are  be  and.  its  variations,  also  do,  did,  have,  had,  shall,  should, 
will,  would,  may,  might,  can,  could,  and  must. 

Notes. — I.     Verbs,  not  auxiliary,  are  called  principal  verbs. 

II.  Be,  do,  have,  will,  would  and  can  are  used  also  as  principal  verbs.  They  are  so  used 
where  not  combined  with  a  principal  verb  expressed  or  understood:  as,  "I  have  two  books," 
have,  principal.     "I  have  seen  the  races,"  have,  auxiliary. 


PROGRESSIVE    AND    PASSIVE   FORMS. 

206.  Progressive  Form. — A  verb  is  conjugated  in  the  progressive  form  by 
joining  its  present  participle  to  the  different  forms  of  the  verb  be:  as, — 

Am  going.     Have  been  thinking. 

207.  Passive  Form. — A  transitive  verb  is  conjugated  in  the  passive  voice  by 
joining  its  past  participle  to  the  different  forms  of  the  verb  be:  as, — 

Were  seen.     May  be  permitted. 

Conjugation  of  the  Verb  Be,  or  Am. 


Present. 
Be,  or  am, 


Singular. 

1.  I  am, 

2.  You  are, 

3.  He  is, 


1. 

2. 
3. 


I  was, 
You  were, 
He  was, 


1.     I  shall  be, 

2-     You[willbe, 
3.     He     S 


PRINCIPAL    PARTS. 

Past. 
was, 

regular  conjugation. 

Indicative  Mode, 
present  tense. 


1. 

2. 

3. 


PAST   TENSE. 


FUTURE  TENSE. 


Past  Participle. 
been. 


Plural. 
We     i 
You   >■  are. 
They  ) 


1.  We     \ 

2.  You   >•  were. 

3.  They  J 

1.  We  shall  be, 

2-  You   >  will  be. 


3.     They  ) 


1. 
2. 
3. 


PRESENT  PERFECT   TENSE. 


[  have  been, 


I 

You 

He  has  been, 


1.  We     i 

2.  You   >  have  been. 

3.  They ) 


PAST  PERFECT  TENSE. 


1.  I  ) 

2.  You  y  had  been, 

3.  He     ) 


1. 

2. 
3. 


We     \ 

You    >  had  been. 

They  ) 


46 


ri;  \otical  English  grammar. 


1. 
2. 
3. 


FUTURE   PERFECT   TENSE. 

I  shall  have  been,  1. 

2. 
3. 


We  shall  have  been, 


^  ou  I  will  have  been, 

lie      ) 


You    ) 
They  ) 


will  have  been. 


1. 
2. 
3. 

1. 
2. 
3. 


1. 
2. 
3. 


1. 
2. 
3. 


1. 
2. 
3. 


1. 
2. 
3. 

1. 
2. 
3. 


1. 
2. 
3. 


1. 
2. 
4. 


Singular. 
•If  I       j 
If. you  |-be, 
If  he    ) 


Ifl       > 

If  you  |-  were. 

If  he    ) 


i1' 

Were  ■<  you, 

(he, 


Subjunctive  Mode, 
present  tense. 


PAST  TENSE. 

01' 
PAST  TENSE. 


1. 
2. 

3. 

1. 
2. 
3. 


1. 

2. 
3. 


PAST  PERFECT   TENSE. 


Ifl         ) 

If  you  >  had  been, 
If  he    ) 


1. 
2. 
3. 


or 


PAST   PERFECT   TENSE. 


Had  ■<  you  >•  been, 
(he    ) 


Potential  Mode, 
present  tense. 


You  \  may  be, 
He    ) 


You  >•  might  be, 
He    J 


PAST  TENSE. 


1. 

2. 
3. 


1. 

2. 
3. 

1. 
2. 
3. 


PRESENT   PERFECT   TENSE. 


You  >•  may  have  been, 
He    ) 


PAST  PERFECT   TENSE. 


You  >  might  have  been, 
He    ) 


1. 
2. 
3. 


Plural. 
If  we     \ 
If  you  |  be. 
If  they  ) 


If  we     \ 

If  you  >■  were. 

If  they  ) 


|  we, 

Were  -j  you, 
'  they. 


If  we     \ 

If  you  I  had  been. 

If  they  ) 


rwe     | 

Had  ■<  you  V  been. 

( they  ) 


We     \ 

You    >  may  be. 

They) 

We     \ 

You    >  might  be. 

They  ) 


We     j 

You    >  may  have  been. 

•They  ) 


We     \  ; 

You    V  might  have  been. 

They) 


CONJUGATION.  4$ 

Notes.— I.  Shall,  in  the  first  person,  and  will,  in  the  second  and  third,  future  tenses,  are 
used  to  denote  futurity.  When  will  is  used  in  the  first  person,  or  shall,  in  the  second  or  third, 
determination  or  necessity  is  represented.     (See  Lesson  29.) 

II.  In  reviews,  use  in  the  Potential  Mode,  the  auxiliaries  can  and  must,  for  the  present  and 
present  perfect;  and  could,  would  and  slwuld,  for  the  past  and  past  perfect. 

Imperative  Mode. 
Singular.  present  tense.  Plural. 

.2.     Be,  or  do  you  be;  2.     Be,  or  do  thou  be;  2.     Be,  or  do  ye  or  you  be. 

Infinitive  Mode. 
Present,  To  be,  Present  Perfect,  To  have  been. 

Participles. 
Present,  Being,  Past,  Been,  Present  Perfect,  Having  been. 

Note. — In  the  poetic  and  solemn  style,  the  pronoun  in  the  second  person  singular  is  thou. 
With  this  pronoun,  the  second  person  singular  of  the  verb  is  conjugated  thus:  Thou  art,  thou 
wast  or  werl,  thou  wilt  be,  thou  hast  been,  thou  hadst  been,  thou  wilt  have  been,  for  the  indicative 
mode.  If  thou  be,  if  thou  werl  or  wert  thou,  ;|  thou  hadst  been  or  hadst  tlwu  been,  for  the  subjunc- 
tive mode.  Thou  mayst  be,  thou  mightst  be,  thou  maysl  have  been,  thou  mightst  have  been,  for  the 
potential.     Imperative,  do  thou  be. 

Exercise  72. — Fill  out  the  following  forms,  using  the  verb  write: 

Indicative  Mode, 
present  tense. 


Singular. 

Plural. 

1. 

I...., 

1. 

AVe  ..... 

2. 

You  ..... 

• 

2. 

You  ..... 

3. 

He  ..... 

past  tense. 

3. 

They 

1. 

I...., 

1. 

We 

2. 

You  ..... 

2. 

You, , 

3. 

He 

• 

FUTURE  tense. 

3. 

They 

1. 

I  .... 

1. 

We  ..... 

2. 

You  ..... 

2. 

You 

3. 

He  ..... 

present  perfect  tense. 

3. 

They..... 

1. 

I...., 

1. 

We  ...., 

2. 

You  ..... 

2. 

You  ..... 

3. 

He  ..... 

PAST   PEKFKIT    TENSE. 

3. 

They 

1. 

I...., 

1. 

We  ..... 

2. 

You  ..... 

2. 

You  ...., 

3. 

He  ..... 

FUTURE  PERFECT   TENSE. 

3. 

They  ..... 

1. 

I..... 

1. 

We  ..... 

2. 

You  ...., 

2. 

You 

3. 

He 

■ 

3. 

They 

4S 


I'U  ACTICAL    ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 


Sl'liJI'NI  TIVK    Moi)K. 


PRESKNT   TENSE. 


1. 

HI 

I.     Ifwe...., 

2. 

If  you , 

2.     If  you , 

3. 

If  he  ...., 

3.     If  they 

PAST  TENSE. 

1. 

Ifl 

1.     Ifwe...., 

2. 

If  you , 

2.     If  you , 

3. 

If  he...., 

3.     If  they , 

PAST  PERFECT  TENSE. 

1. 

Ifl 

..,  or  .. 

..  I ,           1.     Ifwe 

..,  or we 

2. 

If  you .. 

. . ,  or  . . 

. .  you ,        2.     If  you 

. .,  or you  ... 

— » 

3. 

If  he 

..,  or  .. 

..  he ,         3.     If  they 

. . ,  or they  . . 

1.  I  may 

2.  You  may 

3.  He  may  . . 


1.  I  might , 

2.  You  might 

3.  He  might , 


1.  I  may  have 

2.  You  may  have 

3.  He  may  have  . . 


1.  I  might  have  ... 

2.  You  might  have 

3.  He  might  have  . 


Potential  Mode, 
present  tense. 


1.  We  may  ... 

2.  You  may  . . 

3.  They  may  . 


PAST  TENSE. 

1.  We  might , 

2.  You  might , 

3.  They  might , 

PRESENT   PERFECT   TENSE. 

1.  We  may  have , 

2.  You  may  have , 

3.  They  may  have , 

PAST   PERFECT   TENSE. 

1.  We  might  have , 

2.  You  might  have , 

3.  They  might  have 


Imperative  Mode, 
present  tense. 


2 ,  or  do  you 

Present. 
To...., 


Present. 


2.     ,  or  do  thou  . 

Infinitive  Mode. 


Participles. 
Past. 


2 ,  or  do  ye  or  you 

Present  Perfect. 
To  have , 

Present  Perfect.  , 
having 


AGREEMENT  OF    VERBS.                                                                 49 

Exercise  73. — Correct  the  errors  in  the  following  sentences  and  give  reasons: 

1.  I  done  it  myself.  16.     He  throwed  it  into  the  river,  for  I  seen 

2.  Some  valuable  land  was  overflown.  him  when  he  done  it. 

3.  She  sets  by  the  open  window  enjoying  17.     She  come  just  after  you  had  left. 

the  scene  tbat  lays  before  her.*  18.     They  sung  a  new  tune  which  they  had 

4.  The  tide  sits  in.  not  sang  before. 

5.  Go  and  lay  down.  19.     The  water  I  drunk  there  was  better 

6.  The  sun  sits  in  the  west.  than  any  that  I  had  drank  elsewhere. 

7.  I  remember  when  the  corner-stone  was  20.     The  leaves  had  fell. 

lain.  21.     I  had  rode  a  short  distance  when  the 

8.  Sit  the  plates  on  the  table.  sun  begun  to  rise. 

9.  He  sat  out  for  London  yesterday.  22.     I  found  the  water  froze. 

10.  I  laid  there  an  hour.  23.    He  run  until  he  became  so  weary  that 

11.  Set  down  and  talk  a  little  while.  he  had  to  lay  down. 

12.  He  has  laid  there  an  hour  24.     I  had  began  to  think  that  you  had  for- 

13.  I  am  setting  by  the  river.  sook  us. 

14.  He  has  went  and  done  it  without  my  25.    I  am  afraid  that  I  cannot  learn  him  to 
permission.  do  it. 

15.  He  flew  from  justice. 

(*  For  special  exercises  on  sit,  lie,  rise,  fall,  fly,  see  Lesson  29.) 


LESSOR   24. 


Agreement  of  Verbs. 

208.  Rule. — A  verb  must  agree  with  its  subject  in  number  and  person:  as, — 
I  am  the  man.     He  writes  well.     Henry  and  George  play  scientifically. 

209.  Special  Rule  I. — The  number  of  the  verb  is  not  controlled  by  the 

adjuncts:  as, — 

The  derivation  of  these  words  is  uncertain. 

210.  Special  Rule  II. — Every  finite  verb  should  have  a  separate  subject 

expressed:  as, — 

"  It  is  a  contented  mind  makes  him  happy,"  is  incorrect.  The  verb  "makes"  should  have 
its  subject  that  expressed. 

Exceptions.— I.  A  verb  in  the  imperative  mode,  its  subject  being,  generally,  thou  or  you 
understood:  as,  "  Be  noble  minded." 

II.  A  verb  repeated  for  the  sake  of  emphasis,  or  connected  with  another  in  the  same  con- 
struction: as,  "It  is  going,  going,  going."     "Flowers  bud,  blossom,  wither,  and  die." 

III.  Sometimes  a  verb  after  the  conjunction  than.  "  He  did  no  more  than  was  expected 
of  him." 

211.  Special  Rule  III.— When  the  subject  of  the  verb  is  a  relative  pronoun, 
the  number  of  the  verb  is  determined  by  the  number  of  the  antecedent:  as, — 

"That  is  one  of  the  strongest  arguments  that  have  been  presented  on  any  subject."     That, 
the  subject  of  the  verb,  is  plural  to  agree  with  its  antecedent  arguments ;  therefore  the  verb 
must  have  the  plural  form. 
4 


50  PRACTICAL   ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

Notes. — I.  A  singular  subject  may  have  a  plural  attribute:  as,  A  dollar  is  one  hundred 
cents. 

II.  A  plural  subject  may  have  a  singular  attribute:  as,  "Ye  are  the  salt  of  the  earth." 

III.  When,  by  transposition,  the  subject  is  placed  after,  and  the  attribute  before  the  verb, 
care  is  needed  to  make  the  verb  agree  with  the  subject  and  not  with  the  attribute:  as,  "The 
salt  of  the  earth  are  ye."     "  Ye,"  being  the  subject,  the  verb  must  have  the  plural  form. 

Exercise  74. — Name  the  verb  in  each  of  the  following  sentences,  and  give  its 
subject.  If  the  verb  and  subject  agree,  give  the  rule  and  show  how  it  applies. 
If  they  do  not  agree,  change  the  verb  to  agree  with  its  subject,  and  give  the  rule. 

Example. — I  loves  reading.  Loves  should  be  love,  to  agree  with  /,  in  the  first  person  singular. 
I  love  reading. 

1.  A  soft  answer  turn  away  wrath. 

2.  The  days  of  man  is  as  grass. 

3.  Thou  sees  how  little  has  been  done. 

4.  He  dare  not  act  otherwise. 

5.  Fifty  pounds  of  wheat  produces  forty  pounds  of  flour. 

6.  A  variety  of  beautiful  objects  please  the  eye. 

7.  So  much  of  ability  and  merit  are  seldom  found. 

8.  A  judicious  arrangement  of  studies  facilitate  improvement. 

9.  The  combined  population  of  the  two  cities  are  two  huudred  thousand. 

10.  To  be  ignorant  of  such  things  are  now  inexcusable. 

11.  She  needs  not  trouble  herself. 

12.  Forty  head  of  cattle  were  sold  in  one  hour. 

13.  The  horse  was  sent  forward  to  engage  the  enemy. 

14.  The  foot,  in  the  meantime,  was  preparing  for  an  attack. 

15.  Fifty  sail  were  seen  approaching  the  shore. 

16.  Two  dozen  is  as  many  as  you  can  take. 

17.  One  pair  was  spoiled. 

18.  Five  pair  was  in  good  condition. 

19.  Patience  and  diligence,  like  faith,  removes  mountains. 

20.  Life  and  death  is  in  the  power  of  the  tongue. 

21.  Anger  and  impatience  is  always  unreasonable. 

22.  Out  of  the  same  mouth  proceeds  blessing  and  cursing. 

23.  To  profess  regard,  and  to  act  differently,  marks  a  base  mind. 

24.  To  be  good  and  to  seem  good  are  different  things. 

Exercise  75. — Correct  the  errors  in  the  following  sentences: 

1.  He  says  he  don't  know  what  to  advise  in  the  matter. 

2.  That  the  ship,  with  all  her  crew,  are  lost,  have  been  reported. 

3.  You  was  not  there.     (The  pronoun  you  is  of  the  plural  form  and  must  have  a  plural  verb.) 

4.  It  is  his  evil  companions  that  has  led  him  away. 

5.  It  is  thinking  strengthens  the  mind. 

6.  What  have  become  of  your  good  resolutions? 

7.  The  condition  of  the  crops  show  that  the  country  has  suffered  much. 

8.  I  called  but  you  was  not  at  home. 

9.  There  was  more  than  one  of  us  present. 

10.  You  are  not  the  first  one  that  have  been  deceived  in  the  same  way. 

11.  The  spirit  of  our  forefathers  still  animate  their  descendants. 

12.  There  comes  the  boys. 

13.  Ten  months'  interest  are  due. 

14.  Young's  "  Night  Thoughts"  are  his  great  work. 


AGREEMENT   OF   VERBS,  CONTINUED.  51 

LESSOX   25. 


Agreement  of  Verbs  —  Continued. 

'212.  Rule. — A  collective  noin  requires  a  plural  verb  when  reference  is  made 
to  the  individuals  composing  the  collection;  but  when  the  collection  is  referred 
to  as  a  whole,  the  verb  should  be  singular:  as, — 

"  The  jury  were  not  unanimous."     "  The  fleet  is  under  orders  to  sail." 

Exercise  76. — Determine  the  number  of  each  of  the  following  nouns,  and  tell 
which  verb  or  pronoun  should  be  used: 

1.  The  public  \  „1SQ  c  invited  to  attend. 

n      t«i„  .1      (  was   )    v   .  -.    -,  .      (  its  opinion. 

2.  The  assembly  j  were  £  divided  in  \  tbeirPopinions. 

3.  The  jury  j  ^  J.  failed  to  agree. 

4.  A  committee  •].  was  [■  appointed  to  examine  the  accounts. 

5.  In  France,  the  peasantry  -j  ^s  I  barefoot  while  the  middle  class  j  ^k^s  [  use  of 
wooden  Shoes. 

6.  The  legislature  -  ,   *s   I  adjourned. 

7.  The  House  \  ^"J3  I  called  to  order. 

(  was  ) 

8.  The  multitude  eagerly  j  ^™^  J.  pleasure. 

9.  The  corporation  -J  a?e  j-  individually  responsible. 

10.  Fifty  head  -j  ™a  I  drowned. 

J  (  were  ) 

11.  Upon  motion  the  assembly  resolved  j  the^gffVeS  \  int0  a  committee  of  the  whole. 

10      rrU  (  were  j    •, .  A  ._  (  their  leader. 

12.     The  army  j  was  j-  devoted  to  -j  ^  ]eader 

Exercise  77. — Use  in  sentences  the  following  collective  nouns: 

1.  Family,  nation,  council,  majority,  association,  club,  parly. 

2.  School,  navy,  command,  force,  community,  court,  congregation,  company. 

213.  Rule. — I.  Two  or  more  subjects  connected  by  and,  when  they  convey 
plurality  of  idea,  require  a  verb  in  the  plural:  as, — 

"  Time  and  tide  wait  for  no  man."  "That  the  man  is  a  detective,  and  that  he  was  present, 
are  well-known  facts." 

II.  Two  or  more  subjects  connected  by  and,  convey,  not  plurality,  but  unity 
of  idea,  in  the  following  instances,  when  the  verb  must  be  in  the  singular  number: 

1.  When  the  connected  subjects  are  used  to  designate  but  one  individual:  as,  "The  distin- 
guished patriot  and  statesman  has  retired  from  public  life." 

2.  When  they  name  two  or  more  things  taken  as  one  whole:  as,  "Bread  and  milk  is  excel 
lent  food  for  children." 

3.  When  singular  subjects  are  preceded  by  each,  every,  and  no,  they  are  taken  separately: 
as,  "  Every  tall  tree  and  every  steeple  was  blown  down."  "  No  time  and  no  money  was  spared 
in  the  pursuit  of  happiness." 


5^  PRACTICAL   ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

Note. — The  connective  is  sometimes  understood:  as,  "Every  day,  every  hour,  has  its  own 

duties." 

'21 4-.  Rule. — Two  or  more  singular  subjects  connected  by  or  or  wo?*  require 
a  verb  in  the  singular  number:  as, — 

Ignorance  or  negligence  has  caused  the  mistake.     K either  John  nor  Henry  teas  there. 

'1 1 5.  Special  Rule  I. — Two  connected  subjects,  one  taken  affirmatively  and 
tlir  other  negatively,  belong  to  different  propositions,  and  the  verb  must  agree 
with  the  affirmative  Bubject:  as, — 

"  Virtue,  and  not  riches,  constitutes  happiness."     "  He,  and  not  I,  is  chosen." 

2 1  (i.  Special  Rule  I i. — When  two  subjects  are  connected  by  as  well  as,  save, 
but,  than,  as,  or  as  soon  as,  the  verb  must  agree  with  the  first  and  be  understood 
with  the  second:  as, — 

"  Time,  as  well  as  patience,  is  needed."     "More  industrious  men  than  he  are  seldom  seen." 

217.  Special  Rule  III. — A  verb  having  two  or  more  subjects  of  different 
persons  or  numbers  connected  by  or  or  nor,  agrees  with  the  subject  nearest  to  it, 
and  is  understood  with  the  rest,  in  the  person  and  number  required:  as, — 

"Neither  his  style  nor  his  thoughts  are  remarkable."  "He  or  I  am  wrong."  "Tou  or 
Mary  is  mistaken. " 

Note. — When,  however,  the  subjects  require  different  forms  of  the  verb,  it  is  generally 
better  to  express  the  verb  or  its  auxiliary  with  each  subject,  or  to  reconstruct  the  sentence:  as, 
He  is  wrong,  or  I  am.     You  are  mistaken,  or  Mary  is. 

218.  Special  Rule  IV. — When  the  verb  separates  its  subjects,  it  agrees  in 
number  with  the  subject  which  precedes  it,  and  is  to  be  understood  after  the 
rest:  as, — 

"John  was  present,  and  Paul  and  William." 

219.  Special  Rule  V. — When  several  subjects  follow  the  verb,  each  subject 
may  be  emphasized  by  making  the  verb  agree  with  that  which  stands  nearest:  as, — 

"  Therein  consists  the  use,  and  force,  and  nature  of  language." 

220.  Special  Rule  TI. — When  the  connected  subjects  are  of  different  per- 
sons, the  verb  must  be  in  the  plural  number,  and  must  agree  with  the  first  person 
rather  than  the  second,  and  with  the  second  rather  than  the  third:  as, — 

"My  sister  and  I  are  employed  daily  in  our  respective  occupations." 

Exercise  78. — Correct  the  errors  in  the  following  sentences: 

1.  Circumstances  alters  cases. 

2.  A  number  of  persons  were  there. 

3.  Have  the  grammar  class  recited? 

4.  Nothing  but  wailings  were  heard. 

5.  Such  books  as  this  is  worth  purchasing. 

6.  Neither  poverty  nor  riches  is  hurtful  to  him. 

7.  The  book  is  one  of  the  best  that  ever  was  written. 

8.  Is  each  or  both  of  us  going  to  row  on  the  return  trip? 

9.  Pleasure,  and  not  books,  occupy  his  mind. 

10.  His  food  were  locusts  and  wild  honey. 

11.  The  hue  and  cry  of  the  country  pursue  him. 

12.  Every  book  and  every  paper  were  in  their  place. 


REDUNDANT,   DEFECTIVE,  AND  IMPERSONAL    VERBS.  53 


L,      i^i^W-lX.   au, 


13.  Each  day  and  each  hour  bring  their  own  duties. 

14.  No  time,  no  money,  no  labor,  were  spared. 

15.  Generation  after  generation  pass  away. 

16.  They,  as  well  as  I,  am  influenced  by  what  he  said. 

17.  After  the  battle  the  army  was  scattered  through  the  country. 

18.  A  herd  of  cattle  peacefully  grazing  afford  a  pleasing  sight. 

19.  The  court,  at  last,  have  passed  sentence  on  the  criminal. 

20.  Virtuous  effort,  and  not  depraved  genius,  win  the  prize. 

21.  No  voice  nor  sound  but  their  own  echoes  were  heard  in  reply. 

22.  The  committee  was  unable  to  agree,  and  it  asked  to  be  discharged. 

23.  The  second  and  the  third  Epistle  of  John  contains  each  a  single  chapter. 

24.  For  the  consequences  of  this  transaction  he  or  they  is  responsible. 

25.  When  sickness,  infirmity,  or  reverse  of  fortune  affect  us,  the  sincerity  of  friendship 
is  tested. 


LESSOR   26. 


Redundant,  Defective,  and  Impersonal  Verbs. 

221.  A  redundant  verb  is  one  that  has  both  a  regular  and  an  irregular  form 
for  the  past  tense  and  perfect  participle:  as, — 

Swelled,  swollen;  learnt,  learned. 

222.  A  defective  verb  is  one  that  forms  no  participles,  and  is  not  used  in 
all  the  modes  and  tenses.  The  defective  verbs  are:  The  auxiliaries  can,  may, 
shall,  will,  and  must,  with  their  variations;  also,  ought,  quoth,  beware,  and  wit. 

223.  An  impersonal  verb  is  a  verb  that  is  used  only  in  the  third  person 
singular.     There  are  two  kinds  of  impersonal  verbs: 

1.  Those  asserting  natural  phenomena;  as, — 
"It  rains;"  "it  storms;"  "it  grows  cold." 

2.  The  forms  methinks  and  methought. 

Notes. — I.  The  neuter  pronoun  it,  in  such  expressions  as  "It  rains,"  does  not  seem  to 
represent  any  noun,  but  in  connection  with  the  verb,  expresses  merely  a  condition  of  things. 

II.  Methinks  is  composed  of  me,  the  indirect  object,  and  thinks,  meaning  seems.  The  sub- 
ject of  the  verb  thinks  is  the  clause  following:  as,  "Methinks  I  hear  a  voice'"  =  "  That  I  hear 
a  voice  seems  to  me,"  or  "It  seems  to  me  that  I  hear  a  voice." 

224.  Retained  object. — The  indirect  object  of  a  verb  is  sometimes  made 
the  subject  of  a  verb  in  the  passive  voice,  and  the  direct  object  is  retained  after 
the  verb:  as, — 

He  was  promised  a  position  by  the  secretary  =  The  secretary  promised  him  a  position;  or, 
A  position  was  promised  him  by  the  secretary. 

Note. — This  form  of  construction  is  regarded  improper  by  some  grammarians,  but  it  is  an 
idiom  of  our  language  established  by  good  usage. 


5-4  PKACTICAL   ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

Exercise  71). — Change  each  of  the  following  sentences  to  the  opposite  form: 

1.  Her  teacher  paid  her  a  high  compliment. 

2.  1  was  presented  a  fine  painting. 

3.  A  very  fine  specimen  was  shown  us. 

4.  I  was  told  the  story  by  one  of  the  witnesses. 
.">.     Admittance  was  refused  him  by  the  guard. 

6.  Two  tickets  were  offered  us. 

7.  He  was  given  two  hours  in  which  to  procure  bail. 

8.  Every  opportunity  was  offered  him. 

9.  He  was  allowed  a  discount  of  twenty  per  cent. 

10.  The  contractor  was  allowed  an  extension  of  time. 

11.  I  was  saved  much  trouble  by  your  thoughtfulness. 

12.  The  artists  were  tendered  a  hearty  vote  of  thanks. 

13.  We  were  offered  our  choice  of  the  remaining  rooms. 

14.  The  president  was  accorded  a  hearty  reception. 

15.  The  officer  was  granted  a  two  weeks'  leave  of  absence. 

Note. — The  pronoun  used  as  the  indirect  object  is  often  a  word  which  refers  to  some  person 
or  persons  to  whom  prominence  is  desired  to  be  given.  This  can  be  effected  by  using  the 
indirect  object  as  the  subject,  and  changing  the  verb  from  the  active  to  the  passive  form;  and 
in  many  cases  the  expression  certainly  does  not  lose  in  force  and  smoothness  by  reason  of  the 
change.  The  question  as  to  which  of  the  objects,  the  direct  or  indirect,  shall  be  made  the 
subject  when  the  passive  verb  is  used,  is,  perhaps,  more  a  matter  of  where  to  place  the  emphasis 
than  of  how  to  make  the  expression  smooth  and  concise. 

Compare,  1.  "  That  question  has  been  asked  me  more  than  once,"  with,  "  I  have  been  asked 
that  question  more  than  once."  2.  "  His  choice  was  allowed  him,"  with,  "  He  was  allowed  his 
choice."  3.  "Permission  was  granted  the  captain  to  change  the  time,"  with,  "The  captain 
was  granted  permission  to  change  the  time." 


LESSOR   27. 


Participles. 

225.     A  participle  is  a  word  derived  from  a  verb  and  partaking  of  the  nature 
of  a  verb  and  of  an  adjective  or  a  noun,  or,  in  some  instances,  of  an  adverb. 

Example  I. — "We  could  see  many  little  fish  swimming  near  our  boat." 
In  this  sentence  the  word  swimming,  as  an  adjective,  qualifies  the  noun  fish,  and  as  a  verb, 
signifies  the  action  of  the  fish. 

Example  II. — "The  stvimming  of  the  little  fish  attracted  our  attention." 
In  this  sentence  the  word  swimming,  as  a  noun,  stands  as  the  subject  of  the  verb  attracted, 
and  as  a  verb  signifies  the  action  of  the  fish. 

Example  III. — "The  little  fish  went  swimming  by." 

In  this  sentence  the  word  swimming,  as  an  adverb,  modifies  the  verb  went,  and  as  a  verb 
signifies  (in  part)  the  action  of  the  fish. 


PARTICIPLES.  55 

226.     There  are  three  participles,  the  Present,  the  Past,  and  the  Compound, 

2*27.  The  Present  or  Active  Participle  ends  in  ing,  and  is  also  called  the 
Imperfect  Participle,  because  it  represents  the  continuance  of  an  action,  being,  or 
state:  as, — 

Speaking,  being,  dreaming. 

228.  The  Past  or  Passive  Participle  ends  in  d,  ed,  t,  n,  or  en,  or  takes  an 
irregular  form,  such  as  sunk,  thought,  etc.,  and  is  also  called  the  Perfect  Par- 
ticiple, because  it  represents  completed  action,  being,  or  state:  as, — 

Spoken,  been,  dreamed  or  dreamt. 

229.  The  Compound  Participle  is  formed  by  placing  being  or  having  before 
a  Past  Participle:  as, — 

Being  spoken,  having  dreamed. 

And  by  placing  having  been  before  either  a  Present  or  Past  Participle:  as, — 
Having  been  dreaming,  having  been  spoken. 

SOME    USES   AND    OFFICES    OF   THE    PARTICIPLE. 

w 

230.  As  an  Adjective. — The  participle  is  often  used  as  a  pure  adjective: 
as, — 

An  amusing  story.     A  sliding  scale.     "  The  Deserted  Village."    The  beaten  path. 

And  in  such  compound  forms  as, — 

The  all-absorbing  topic.     A  half-learned  lesson.     A  self-invited  guest. 

231.  As  an  Adverb. — Sometimes  ly  is  added  to  the  participle  to  form  a 
pure  adverb:  as, — 

The  audience  smiled  approvingly.  The  leader  spoke  encouragingly.  The  question  was  very 
pointedly  asked. 

232.  As  an  Attribute  Complement. — The  participle  may  be  used  as  an 
attribute  complement:  as, — 

The  work  is  progressing ;     The  lady  is  accomplished. 

233.  Used  Independently. — It  may  be  used  independently:  as, — 
Nothing  preventing,  we  shall  start  to-night.     Strictly  speaking,  the  statement  is  not  correct. 

234.  The  Gerund. — It  may  be  the  equivalent  of  an  infinitive  and  is  then 
called  by  some  the  gerund:  as, — 

The  attorney  commenced  speaking  at  two  o'clock  =  The  attorney  commenced  to  speak  at 
two  o'clock. 

Notes. — I.  Active  transitive  participles  may  govern  objects  just  as  the  verbs  from  which 
they  are  derived:  as,  1.  Hearing  a  voice  (noun)  I  turned.  Seeing  that  his  boat  was  being  drawn 
into  the  current  (clause),  and  believing  him  to  be  unconscious  of  his  peril  (pronoun  and  infinitive 
phrase),  we  shouted  to  him  to  take  his  oars. 

II.  Participles  may  have  modifiers:  as,  1.  His  (possessive  pronoun)  worrying  was  unneces- 
sary. 2.  There  is  nothing  to  prevent  my  brother's  (possessive  noun)  going  with  you.  3.  Looking 
carefully  (adverb)  we  found  the  error.  4.  Passing  by  the  house  (phrase)  we  looked  in.  5.  We 
saw  the  purse  lying  ichere  you  left  it  (clause). 

III.  The  participle  maybe  followed  by  an  attribute:  as,  1.  My  foreman  being  sick  (adjective), 
I  cannot  attend.     2.  My  father  being  attorney  (noun)  for  the  plaintiff,  he  will  argue  the  case. 


50  PRACTICAL   ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

Exercise  80. — Construct  sentences  containing  the  fo]  lowing  words  and  phrases 

used  appropriately: 

1.  The  increasing  cloudiness.  10.     Repeatedly. 

2.  A  sweeping  fire.  11.     Convincingly. 

3.  A  consuming  thirst.  12.     Taming. 

4.  The  dripping  clothes.  13.     Roaring. 

5.  Flaming  torches.  14.     Crumbling. 

6.  Surging  crowd.  15.     All-destroying. 

7.  Flying  timbers.  16.     Self-governed. 

8.  Laughingly.  17.     Half-hearted. 

9.  Assuringly.  18.     Health  permitting. 

Exercise  81. — Tell  which  of  the  following  participles  are  adjectives,  which, 
nouns,  which,  adverbs,  and  which  are  used  in  some  other  way: 

1.  The  little  maid  went  tripping  along  to  school. 

2.  The  exciting  contest  drew  a  crowd  of  spectators. 

3.  The  passengers,  alarmed  at  the  pitching  of  the  boat,  asked  the  captain  to  land  them. 

4.  The  wolves  came  prowling  about  our  tent. 

5.  The  gathering  darkness  obscured  our  view. 

6.  We  were  aroused  by  the  beating  of  drums  and  the  shouting  of  the  natives. 

7.  The  water  was  scalding  hot. 

8.  Talking  about  hunting,  have  you  read  Cummings'  adventures? 

9.  The  bridge  giving  way,  the  train  was  wrecked. 

10.  Seeing  is  believing. 

11.  Going  a  few  steps  farther,  we  could  see  the  advancing  column. 

12.  You  can  imagine  me  groping  through  the  darkness,  dripping  wet. 

13.  Waving  his  sword  above  his  head,  the  colonel  called  to  his  men  to  follow  him. 

14.  The  water  being  rough,  we  did  not  row  far. 

15.  Hoping  that  this  arrangement  will  please  you,  I  remain,  etc. 


LESSOR   28. 


The  Participle  in  Construction. 

235.  Rule. — When  a  transitive  participle,  used  as  a  noun,  is  limited  by  some 
preceding  word,  the  preposition  of  is  required  to  govern  the  object  following:  as, — 

The  taking  of  things  by  force  generally  causes  trouble.  Much  reading  of  good  authors  has 
improved  his  style. 

236.  Exception. — But  when  the  transitive  participle  is  not  limited  by  a 
preceding  word,  the  preposition  of  should  not  be  used:  as, — 

Reading  good  authors  has  improved  his  style. 

237.  Suggestions. — As  either  the  participle  or  the  infinitive  may  sometimes 
be  used,  it  is  often  difficult  to  determine  which  should  have  the  preference.  The 
following  suggestions  may  be  of  use  in  making  a  decision  in  some  cases: 


THE    PARTICIPLE   IN"    CONSTRUCTION'.  57 

1.  After  verbs  that  signify  to  omit,  to  avoid,  to  'prevent,  etc.,  the  participle 
should  generally  be  used:  as, — 

I  omitted  doing  it.     We  avoid  referring  to  the  matter  in  his  presence. 

II.  After  verbs  that  signify  to  try  or  to  intend,  the  infinitive  should  generally 
be  used:  as, — 

I  tried  to  do  it.     We  intend  to  refer  to  the  matter,  etc. 

III.  The  participle  may  generally  be  used  after  the  various  forms  of  the  verbs 
begin,  commence,  desist,  practice,  and  others,  especially  when  reference  is  made  to 
what  is  habitual  or  repeated  (though  the  infinitive  is  sometimes  more  elegant): 

as, — 

I  began  writing  my  lessons  last  term.  He  commenced  borrowing  about  a  year  ago.  You 
would  better  desist  urging  him.     They  will  practice  throwing  the  hammer  at  3  o'clock. 

♦  Note. — Care  should  be  taken  not  to  use  a  participle  when  an  ordinary  noun,  a  verbal  noun, 
a  verb  in  the  infinitive,  or  a  substantive  phrase  or  clause  will  more  accurately  or  more  elegantly 
express  the  meaning. 

Examples. — 1.  "  Further  discussing  of  the  question  was  postponed,"  should  be,  "Further 
discussion,  etc."  ± 

2.  "It  is  easier  asking  questions  than  answering  them,"  should  read,  "  It  is  easier  to  ask 
questions  than  to  answer  them." 

Exercise  82. — In  the  following  sentences  state  whether  or  not  it  is  better  to 
use  the  participles  and  prepositions: 

1.     I  neglected  \  ?^JL~  [  my  customary  exercise. 

3.     No  one  likes  j  ^g|  I  in  debt. 

4-     ^  \  studylnglaftnSlly  }  one  ma^  become  learned" 

ithe  exercising  of  ) 
exercising       [•  our  muscles  they  become  strong, 
the  exercise  of    ) 

6.  Do  not  forget  j  ^Stai  \  those  letters- 

7.  We  were  just  j  ^{£2^ '  \  the  propriety  of  doing  so. 

8  I  regret  J      not  beinS  allowed       l  to  SDeak 

8.  i  regret  j  tha(.  j  wag  nQt  allowed  J-  to  speaK. 

9  j  There  being  no  objection  )  .  stand  d 
i    As  there  is  no  objection   j                                      l  ' 

10.     You  must  try  j  ^JjJJ*  [  more  diligently. 

238.  Caution.— Participles  should  be  so  used  that  there  will  be  no  doubt  as 
to  what  they  refer  to  or  modify. 

Example  I. — "  Walking  up  the  street,  the  entire  building  may  be  seen."  Or, 
"The  entire  building  may  be  seen  walking  up  the  street." 

In  these  sentences  the  meaning  suggested  is  that  the  building  walks.     The  true  meaning 
may  be  shown  by  introducing  a  preposition,  indicating  at  once  the  relation  of  the  participle 
as,  "  By  walking  up  the  street,"  etc.,  or,  "May  be  seen  by  walking  up  the  street." 


5S  PRACTICAL    ENGLISH    (iKAMMAR- 

Example  II. — "Emerging  from  the  thicket  the  hunters  saw  a  fine  moose." 

In  this  sentence  it  may  be  either  the  hunters  or  the  moose  that  emerged  from  the  thicket. 
If  the  hunters,  we  must  say,  "  On  emerging,"  etc.,  or,  "The  hunters  emerging,"  etc. ;  if  the 
moose,  we  should  say,  "  The  hunters  saw  a  fine  moose  emerging,"  etc. 

Note. — From  the  last  example  it  will  be  seen  that  the  participle  should  be  placed  as  near 
the  word  it  modifies  as  is  necessary  to  make  the  meaning  plain. 

Exercise  83. — In  the  following  sentences  make  such  changes  and  additions  as 
may  be  needed  to  show  the  intended  meaning: 

1.  The  hew  hall  was  formally  presented  to  the  society  finished  in  hard  wood  and  beauti- 
fully decora  sd. 

2.  Wanted.     Good,  second  hand  piano  by  reliable  party  tuned  to  concert  pitch. 

3.  Lost.     Small,  brown  spaniel,  by  boarder  at  27  Elm  St.,  wearing  brass  collar  marked 
"Galo." 

4.  For  sale,  cheap.     Bicycle,  near];    lew,  for  gentleman  weighing  26  pounds. 

5.  The  enraged  elephant  charged  on  his  keeper  as  soon  as  he  saw  him  swinging  his  trunk 
and  flapping  his  ears. 

6.  Expecting  to  make  the  trip  in  a  single  day  the  horses  were  fed  at  daylight. 

7.  A  gentleman  will  let  his  house  going  abroad  for  the  summer  to  a  small  family  containing 
all  the  improvements. 

8.  Suits  ready  made  of  material  cut  by  an  experienced  tailor  handsomely  trimmed  and 
bought  at  a  bargain  are  offered  cheap. 

9.  Sitting  on  the  ledge  of  rock  we  could  see  the  wounded  eagle. 

10.  Two  new  cruisers  were  added  to  the  fleet  each  carrying  guns  of  the  heaviest  calibre 
commanded  by  experienced  officers. 


LESSOR   29. 


Some  Additional  Principles  and  Suggestions. 

239.  Yerbs  similar  in  Form. — Care  should  be  taken  to  distinguish  between 
transitive  and  intransitive  verbs  similar  or  identical  in  some  of  their  forms.  The 
following  verbs  are  often  confounded: 

Intransitive.  Transitive. 

Lie,  lay,  lain.  Lay,  laid,  laid. 

Rise,  rose,  risen.  Raise,  raised,  raised. 

Sit,  sat,  sat.  Set,  set,  set. 

Fall,  fell,  fallen.  Fell,  felled,  felled. 

Note. — Notice  that  lay  is  the  past  tense  form  of  the  intransitive  verb  to  lie,  and  also  the 
present  tense  form  of  the  transitive  verb  to  lay;  and  that  fell  is  the  past  tense  form  of  the 
intransitive  verb  to  fall,  and  also  the  present  tense  form  of  the  transitive  verb  to  fell. 


SOME   ADDITIONAL   PRINCIPLES   AND   SUGGESTIONS.  59 

Exercise  84. — State  which  of  the  verbs  in  the  following  sentences  are  cor- 
rectly used: 

1.  The  book  lies  on  the  table.  10.  The  general  sits  his  horse  well. 

2.  Let  it  lay  there.  11.  The  explorers  have  just  sat  out. 

3.  He  lay  there  an  hour  before  help  came.  12.  Have  you  set  a  good  example? 

4.  He  has  laid  there  all  day.  13.  The  sun  sat  behind  a  cloud. 

5.  We  have  laid  our  plans.  14.  Set  down  at  once  and  write  a  telegram. 

6.  The  tree  has  just  fell.  15.  He  raised  himself  with  difficulty. 

7.  Are  they  going  to  fall  the  tree?  16.  The  river  has  raised  several  i'  ches. 

8.  The  tree  was  fallen  by  the  wind.  17.  The  river  has  raised  the  bridge. 

9.  I  am  glad  that  you  have  fallen  in  with  18.  The  sun  raised  high  in  the    eavens. 
such  good  companions. 

Note. — Ten  of  the  foregoing  verbs  are  incorrect.  >  r 

'  The  following  verbs  are  sometimes  confounded: 
Flee,  fled,  fled.     (To  run  away.) 
Fly,  flew,  flown.     (To  move  in  the  air.) 
Flow,  flowed,  flowed.     (To  move  by  gravity  as  a  liquid.) 

Exercise  85. — Which  of  the  verbs  in  the  following  sentences  are  correct? 

1.  The  thief  flew  from  justice. 

2.  The  whole  valley  was  overflown. 

3.  The  bird  had  flown. 

4.  The  hounds  flew  along  the  track. 

5.  The  air  was  filled  with  flying  cinders. 

6.  The  water  has  flowed  over  the  bridge  for  several  hours. 

Note. — Sometimes  in  poetic  forms  fly  is  used  for  flee,  and  even  in  prose  a  very  high  rate  of 
running  speed  may  be  indicated  by  the  various  forms  of  the  verb  fly:  as,  The  engine  fairly 
flew  along  the  rails.  Other  verbs  also  are  used  in  this  way:  as,  The  frightened  horses  tore 
down  the  street. 

240.  Shall  and  Will,  Would  and  Should. — Use  these  auxiliaries  so  as  to 
convey  just  the  meaning  intended. 

Shall  in  the  first  person  simply  foretells:  as, — 
"  I  shall  go  to  Chicago  next  week."     "  I  shall  be  happy  to  see  you  at  that  time." 

Shall  in  the  second  and  third  persons,  promises,  commands,  or  expresses- 
determination:  as, — 
"You  shall  go."    (I  promise  it.)     "  You  shall  go."    (I  command  it.)     "  Re  shall  go."    (lam 
determined  to  have  it  so.) 

Will  in  the  first  person  expresses  a  promise  or  a  determination:  as, — 
"Yes,  I  will  go."    (I  promise  it.)     "I  will  go."    (I  am  determined  to  go.) 

Will  in  the  second  and  third  persons  simply  foretells:  as, — 
"  You  will  go."     "  He  will  go."    (It  will  come  to  pass.) 

Should  and  would  are  used  in  a  similar  manner:  as, — 
I  think  that  I  should — you  would— he  would  (where  the  matter  is  not  under  my  control).     Y<  >u 

were  determined  that  I  should — that  you  would—  that  he  should.     I  resolved  that  I  would— you 

should — he  should  (where  I  have  the  authority  and  mean  to  use  it). 

Note. — In  interrogative  sentences  these  auxiliaries  generally  have  a  meaning  nearly  the 

opposite  of  that  in  the  affirmative.     "  Sliall  I  go?  "    (Is  it  your  wish  or  determination?)     "  Wilf 

he  go?  "    (Is  there  a  willingness?)     "  Do  you  think  I  should  go? "    (That  I  ought  to  go?) 


60  PRACTICAL   ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

Exercise  SO. — Supply  the  proper  auxiliaries  (cither  shall  or  will,  should  or 
would)  in  the  following  sentences: 

1.     I consider  it  a  great  favor. 

0.     All receive  their  money  when  the  work have  been  completed. 

3.  I  am  resolved  that  I do  my  duty. 

4.  I  was  resolved  that  he do  his  duty. 

5.  I not  be  surprised  to  see  him  there. 

6 I  go  to  Europe  or  not? 

7.  Do  you  intend  that  I go? 

8.  Do  you  intend  that  you go? 

9.  He sit  and  read  for  hours. 

10.  I  have  decided  that  you go. 

11.     we  hear  a  good  lecture  if  we go? 

12.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  they consult  their  safety  and  turn  back,  who blame 

them? 

13 ..Ifindyou  at  home?    You...    find  me  there. 

14.  Do  you  wish  me  to  go?    I then. 

15.  I like  to  know  who  said  it. 

Compare:  "  I  will  deliver  your  message  and  you  shall  soon  know  his  decision,"  with 

"  I  shall  deliver  your  message  and  you  will  soon  know  his  decision,"  and  show  how  both 

forms  may  be  correct. 

(For  a  full  discussion  of  these  auxiliaries,  see  Richard  Grant  White's  "Words  and  Their 

Uses,"  page  264.) 

241.  Omissions  and  Substitutions. — A  verb  should  not  be  omitted  nor 
represented  by  an  auxiliary  when  by  so  doing  the  meaning  is  rendered  obscure  or 
the  construction  improper. 

For  example,  the  sentence,  "Money  is  scarce  and  times  hard,"  should  read,  "Money  is 
scarce  and  times  are  hard."  "  I  never  have  and  never  will  assist  him,"  should  read,  "  I  never 
have  assisted  and  never  will  assist  him." 

Exercise  87. — Correct  the  errors  in  the  following  sentences: 

1.  I  have  always  and  still  do  think  that  labor  is  honorable. 

2.  There  always  has  and  always  will  be  harmony  between  them. 

3.  We  did  not  then  and  have  not  since  credited  the  report. 

4.  I  have  not  and  I  am  sure  he  will  not  consent  to  the  arrangement. 

5.  If  you  intend  to,  he  ought  not  to  think  of  going  on  the  same  day. 

242.  Different  Forms. — It  is  improper  to  use  different  forms  of  verbs  in 
the  same  connection:  as, — 

Example  I. — "This  had  served  to  increase  instead  of  alleviating  the  difficulty." 

This  sentence  should  read,  "  This  had  served  to  increase  rather  than  to  alleviate  the  difficulty." 

Example  II. — "  Having  known  Mr .  A.  for  several  years  and  as  I  believe  that  it  will  be  to 
your  mutual  advantage  to  become  acquainted,  I  take  pleasure  in  giving  him  this  letter  of 
introduction." 

This  sentence  should  read,  "As  I  have  known,  and  as  I  believe,"  etc.,  or,  "Having  known, 
and  believing,"  etc.,  or  "I  have  known,"  etc. 

Exercise  88. — Improve  upon  the  following  constructions: 

1.  I  would  prefer  to  go  now  in  place  of  staying  so  short  a  time. 

2.  As  I  have  some  knowledge  of  Mr.  B.'s  business  ability,  and  believing  that  it  will  be  to 
your  advantage  to  make  his  acquaintance,  I  take  pleasure  in  introducing  him. 


ADVERBS.  Gl 

3.  After  several  years'  careful  study  of  the  best  methods  of  ventilation,  and  having  for 
some  time  made  a  specialty  of  the  famous  "Harper  System,"  we  feel  prepared  to  give  the 
public  the  best  service  possible  in  our  line. 

Note. — A  progressive  form  for  the  passive  voice  in  the  present  and  past  indicative,  is  made 
by  combining  the  present  and  past  tenses  indicative  of  the  verb  to  be  with  the  present  passive 
participle:  as,  "  The  house  is  being  built."  "The  book  is  being  printed."  This  is  now  super- 
seding the  old  form,  "  The  house  is  building."  "  The  book  is  printing,"  though  some  writers 
do  not  favor  it. 


LESSOR   30. 


Adverbs. 

243.     An  adverb  is  a  word  or  expression  joined  to  a  verb,  an  adjective,  or 
another  adverb,  to  modify  it:  as, — 
Henry  writes  rapidly.     (Verb.) 
He  is  an  exceedingly  bright  boy.     (Adjective.) 
This  was  written  very  rapidly.     (Adverb.) 

24-4.     Sometimes  an  adverb  modifies  a  phrase  or  a  clause:  as, — 
The  book  is  soiled  only  on  the  outside.     I  came  just  as  you  started. 

245.  Entire  phrases  are  sometimes  used  as  adverbs:  as, — 

His  interest  is  not,  in  any  degree,  lessened  by  this  action.     One  is,  at  least,  better  than  none. 

246.  Adverbs  are  often  formed  by  annexing  ly  to  adjectives  or  participles :  as, — 
Wise,  wisely ;  brave,  bravely ;  exulting,  exultingly. 

247.  Comparison. — Many  adverbs  are  compared  like  adjectives:  as, — 
Soon,  sooner,  soonest;  wisely,  more  wisely;  most  wisely;  well,  better,  best. 

248.  With  respect  to  their  meaning,  adverbs  may  be  divided  into  the  following 
classes : 

1.  Adverbs  of  in  aimer  —  answering  the  question  how?   as,  justly,  bravely, 
neatly,  thoroughly. 

2.  Adverbs  of  place  —  answering  the  question  tvhere?  as,  here,  there,  away, 
yonder. 

3.  Adverbs  of  time  —  answering  the  question  when?  as,  now,  then,  soon,  often, 
recently. 

4.  Adverbs  of  degree  —  answering  to  what  extent?  as,  much,  greatly. 

5.  Adverbs  of  cause  —  answering  the  question  ivhy .'  as,  therefore,  consequently, 
hence. 

249.  To  the  above  list  may  be  added  the  following: 

1.  Adverbs  of  affirmation  or  emphasis:  as,  yes,  surely,  certainly,  undoubtedly. 

2.  Adverbs  of  negation  :  as,  no,  not,  nay,  never. 


62  PRACTICAL    ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

Notks. — I.  Some  adverbs  belong  sometimes  to  one  class  and  sometimes  to  another,  accord- 
ing to  their  meaning,  and  how,  token,  irhy,  etc.,  become  interrogative  adverbs  when  used  to  ask 
questions. 

II.  Some  adverbs  are  compound:  as,  herein,  thereby,  whereat,  hereabout. 

III.  Some  adverbs  are  used  independently:  as,  Yes,  I  think  so.     Why,  that  is  strange. 

IV.  The  adverb  there  is  sometimes  used  merely  to  introduce  a  sentence:  as,  There  was  no 
one  at  home.     It  may  then  be  called  a  mere  expletive,  or,  a  word  of  euphony. 

V.  Sometimes  adverbs  connect  two  clauses  and  modify  a  word  in  each  clause.  Such  words 
may  be  termed  either  conjunctive  adverbs  or  subordinate  conjunctions:  as,  Make  hay  white  the 
sun  shines.     You  speak  of  it  as  }T>u  understand  it. 

Exercise  81). — Complete  the  following  sentences  by  supplying  in  each  case  as 
many  appropriate  adverbs  as  you  can: 

1.  The  citizens  protested against  the  appropriation. 

2.  Working  men  are  almost opposed  to  the  change. 

3.  If  he  tries  again  he  will  most succeed. 

4.  I realize  the  importance  of  acting 

5.  It  is expected  the  committee  will  report 

6.  I  have thought  I  would  do  so  sometime. 

7.  Can  you  tell  me they  went? 

8.  How he  reads. 

9.  The  snow  falls 

10.  We  should  all  try  to  live 

11.  That  is what  I  told  him. 

12.  Do  not  walk  near  the  edge  of  the  cliff, at  that  point. 

13.  We  started after  we  had  dinner. 

14 and the  tourists  made  the  ascent. 

15.     The  house  is too  large. 

Exercise  90. — In  the  following  sentences  substitute  adverbs  for  the  italicized 
phrases  and  adverbial  phrases  for  the  italicized  adverbs: 

1.  We  shall  stop  at  this  place  to  day. 

2.  There  was  no  one  with  him  at  that  time;  (or  at  the  time  I  talked  with  him). 

3.  He  is  due  at  this  time. 

4.  We  have  not  heard  from  him  up  to  date. 

5.  At  what  point  shall  I  begin? 

6.  We  reached  the  second  bluff  and  there  we  halted  for  an  hour's  rest. 

7.  We  spent  two  days  in  the  quarry  where  we  found  many  good  specimens. 

8.  At  5  o'clock  the  order  was  given  and  soon  we  were  ready  to  sail. 

9.  I  have  been  consulted  frequently  regarding  this  matter. 

10.  He  spoke  very  candidly. 

11.  I  do  not  know  how  to  present  my  request. 

12.  Why  do  you  think  I  should  go  promptly? 

13.  We  traveled  far  in  the  wrong  direction. 

14.  The  operation  was  performed  with  great  skill. 

15.  We  could  not  go  early,  therefore,  we  preferred  not  to  go  at  all. 

16.  They  greeted  us  very  cordially. 

17.  He  cannot  speak  English  readily,  though  he  converses  with  fluency  in  French  and 
German. 

18.  The  closing  speaker  summed  up  for  the  negative  most  effectively. 

19.  Tell  me  when  to  start  and  I  will  certainly  come. 

20.  The  debate  continued,  uninterruptedly ,  from  morning  till  night. 


ADVERBS,  CONTINUED.  bi> 

LESSOR    31. 


Adverbs  —  Continued. 

250.  Rule*  — Adverbs  modify  verbs,  participles,  adjectives,  other  adverbs,  and 
sometimes  pnrases  or  clauses. 

251.  Special  Rule  I. — Adverbs  should  not  be  used  as  adjectives  nor  adjec- 
tives as  adverbs:  as, — 

"It  looks  strangely,"  is  incorrect.  The  adverb  strangely  is  used  for  the  adjective  strange. 
"John  writes  tolerable  well."    The  adjective  tolerable  is  used  for  the  adverb  tolerably. 

Note. — I.  What  is  said  regarding  the  false  and  exaggerated  use  of  adjectives,  page  34,  will 
apply  with  equal  force  to  the  adverb. 

II.  Such  verbs  as  sound,  smell,  taste,  feel,  appear,  look,  seem,  should  be  followed  by  adverbs 
when  the  manner  of  doing  or  acting  is  described,  and  by  adjectives  when  the  idea  of  quality 
is  to  be  conveyed:  as,  "He  appeared  (seemed  to  be)  prompt  and  willing."  "  He  appeared 
(made  his  appearance) promptly  and  willingly."  "  The  leader  sounded  (caused  to  sound)  the 
notes  clearly. "  ' '  The  notes  sung  by  the  leader  sounded  (seemed)  clear. "  "Our  friends  arrived 
safe  (condition  of  friends)."     "  Our  friends  arrived  recently  (time  of  arrival)." 

252.  Special  Rule  II. — Adverbs  should  be  so  placed  that  there  will  be  no 
doubt  as  to  what  words  they  modify:  as, — 

"  I  wish  only  to  order  fifty  books,"  implies  that  I  do  not  wish  to  deliver  them  or  do  anything 
else  with  them  than  order  them;  whereas,  if  it  is  desired  to  restrict  the  number  ordered  to  fifty, 
it  should  be,  "  I  wish  to  order  only  fifty  books." 

253.  Special  Rule  III. — Do  not  put  an  adverb  between  "to"  and  its  verb: 
as, — 

"He  preferred  to  not  sing."     "He  preferred  not  to  sing,"  is  better. 

254.  Special  Rule  IY. — The  adverbs  ivhen  and  where  should  not  take  the 
place  of  a  noun  and  preposition  in  defining  a  term:  as, — 

"A  contract  is  when  persons  make  an  agreement,"  should  read,  "A  contract  is  an  agreement 
between  persons." 

Notes. — I.  Two  negatives,  or  denying  words,  used  so  that  one  contradicts  the  other,  render 
the  meaning  affirmative :  as,  "I  have  never  said  nothing  of  the  kind."  Nothing  should  be  any- 
thing, or,  never  should  oe  omitted.  "  The  bridge  has  not  been  condemned  yet,  I  don't  think." 
Don't  should  be  omitted. 

II.  When  not  is  followed  by  only,  or  by  some  equivalent  word,  the  negation  is  preserved : 
as,  "  I  not  only  never  said  so,  but  I  never  thought  so." 

III.  The  position  of  the  adverb  should  not  be  such  as  to  make  the  wrong  verb  negative: 
as,  "I  do  not  think  I  shall  go."  The  speaker  does  think  that  he  will  not  go,  and  the  sentence 
should  therefore  read,  "I  think  I  shall  not  go." 

TV.     No,  in  such  expressions  as  "  whether  or  no,"  should  be  not. 

Y.  Ever  so  properly  expresses  indefinite  or  unlimited  degree;  its  place  should  not,  there- 
fore, be  usurped  by  never  so:  as,  "  Be  he  never  so  wise."     Here  never  should  be  ever. 

VI.  Farther  refers  to  distance;  further  means  additional:  as,  I  can  go  no  farther  in  this 
direction,  till  I  have  further  instructions. 


(34  PRACTICAL   ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

VII.  Moat  moans  in  the  highest  degree;  it  is  often  improperly  used  for  almost:  as,  "It  is 
viost  dune."     Moat  should  be  almost. 

VIII.  Nearly  should  be  applied  to  quantity,  time,  or  space,  and  almost  to  degree:  as,  "It 
is  almost  perfect,  is  better  than  It  is  nearly  perfect." 

IX.  Hence,  thence,  and  w7ience  should  never  be  preceded  by  from  ;  from  hence,  from  thenct, 
from  whence,  are  tautological  expressions. 

Exercise  91. — Correct  the  errors  in  the  following  sentences: 

1.  Every  collegian  is  not  a  scholar. 

2.  His  sagacity  almost  appears  miraculous. 

3.  He  don't  do  nothing. 

4.  This  can  be  done  easier. 

5.  My  head  feels  badly. 

6.  She  is  most  sixteen. 

7.  He  reads  very  bad. 
S.  He  went  most  there. 

9.  Most  everybody  says  so. 

10.  I  will  not  go  but  once. 

11.  She  walks  graceful. 

12.  He  spoke  eloquent. 

13.  She  did  that  work  good. 

14.  His  expressions  sounded  harshly. 

15.  It  rained  most  every  day. 

16.  Verbosity  is  when  too  many  words  are  used. 

17.  It  is  impossible  to  be  continually  at  work. 

18.  Whether  he  is  in  fault  or  no  I  cannot  tell. 

19.  Do  you  know  from  whence  this  proceeds? 

20.  Neither  he  nor  no  one  else  can  do  that. 

21.  He  was  not  able  to  pay  the  debt  but  in  part. 

22.  He  only  read  the  book,  not  the  notice  of  it. 

23.  A  wicked  man  is  not  happy,  be  he  never  so  hardened  in  conscience. 

24.  Snow  seldom  or  ever  falls  in  the  southern  part  of  Texas. 

25.  Nothing  farther  was  said  about  the  matter. 

26.  We  could  proceed  no  further  on  our  journey. 

27.  He  is  some  better  than  he  was  yesterday. 

28.  This  pen  does  not  write  good. 

29.  She  dresses  suitable  to  her  means. 

30.  Theism  can  oidy  be  opposed  to  polytheism. 

31.  Corn  should  be  generally  planted  in  April. 

32.  The  words  should  be  arranged  so  that  the  meaning  may  be  clear. 

33.  The  Secretary  was  expected  to  soon  resign. 

34.  You  are  not  well,  I  don't  believe. 

35.  Come  quick  and  do  not  hinder  us. 

36.  They  hoped  for  a  soon  and  prosperous  issue  to  the  war. 

37.  The  then  Emperor  was  noted  for  his  cruelty. 

38.  He  intended  to  early  apply  himself  to  the  study  of  law. 

39.  I  have  done  like  he  directed. 

40.  We  remained  a  week  at  St.  Louis  and  proceeded  from  thence  to  Chicago. 


THE   PEEPOSITIOX.  65 


LESSOR   32. 


The  Preposition. 

255.  A  preposition  is  a  word  which  expresses  the  relation  between  a  noun 
or  a  pronoun,  before  which  it  is  usually  placed,  and  some  other  word  in  the  sen- 
tence: as, — 

We  chatted  with  the  conductor.  The  ball  passed  over  his  head.  The  conductor  chatted  with, 
us.     The  ball  passed  over  him. 

Note. —  With  shows  the  relation  between  conductor  and  chatted;  over,  between  7iead  and 
passed;  with,  between  us  and  chatted;  over,  between  him  and  passed. 

256.  Preposition  and  Object. — The  noun  or  pronoun  following  the  prepo- 
sition is  called  its  object,  and  the  preposition  with  its  object  forms  a  phrase  which 
modifies  or  relatesj;o  some  other  word.    The  phrase  is  sometimes  called  an  adjunct. 

Note.— The  object  of  a  preposition  may  be  a  phrase  or  a  clause:  as,  "They  came  from  over 
the  sea.'"     "We  continued  the  work  from  tchcre  you  finished." 

257.  Adjective  Phrase. — When  the  phrase  formed  by  the  preposition  and 
its  object  is  equivalent  to  an  adjective,  it  is  called  an  adjective  phrase:  as, — 

A  man  of  ability  =  An  able  man.  Habits  of  care  =  Careful  habits.  He  is  without  friends  = 
He  is  friendless. 

258.  Adverbial  Phrase. — When  the  prepositional  phrase  is  equivalent  to 
an  adverb  it  is  called  an  adverbial  phrase:  as, — 

We  followed  in  haste  =  We  followed  hastily.  He  answered  with  reluctance  =  He  answered 
reluctantly.     We  walked  towards  home  —  We  walked  homeward. 

Notes. — I.  A  prepositional  phrase  is  adverbial  or  adjective  so  long  as  it  does  the  duty  of 
either  part  of  speech,  whether  we  can  actually  substitute  an  adverb  or  adjective  or  not:  as, 
They  sailed  on  Tuesday  (adverbial  of  time).  Hang  the  coat  on  the  hook  (adv.  of  place).  A  man 
of  means  (adjective  phrase).     The  wheat  in  that  field  is  ripe  (adj.  phrase). 

II.  Sometimes  the  prepositional  phrase  is  used  as  a  noun:  as,  "  Over  the  fence  is  out"  (sub- 
ject). My  visit  was  of  no  avail  (attribute).  The  sound  came  from  under  the  ground  (object  of 
prep.). 

Exercise  92. — Use  the  following  prepositional  phrases  in  sentences,  and  state 
which  are  adjective,  which  adverbial,  and  which  are  used  as  nouns: 

1.  Through  the  glass.  9.  Around  the  world. 

2.  Down  the  hillside.  10.  At  the  World's  Fair. 

3.  Across  the  way.  11.  Between  the  lines. 

4.  Behind  a  tree.  12.  Before  the  mast. 

5.  Under  the  lilacs.  13.  During  the  first  year. 

6.  Within  reach.  14.  Without  further  ado. 

7.  Of  bygone  days.  15.  Beyond  my  comprehension. 

8.  Prom  bad  to  worse.  16.  With  your  kind  permission. 


66 


I'K  UJTICAL    ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 


Exercise  J>;>. — Change  the  following  adjectives  and  adverbs  to  phrases,  and 
the  phrases  to  adjectives  or  adverbs: 


1. 

Of  the  nation. 

11.     Without  shelter. 

2. 

Fearless. 

12.     Brazen. 

3. 

At  what  time? 

13.     Of  necessity. 

4. 

Where? 

14.     Homeless. 

V 

In  what  manner? 

15.     For  a  purpose. 

0. 

Seaward. 

16.     Never. 

7. 

Of  use. 

17.     Without  prudence. 

0. 

Shakespearean. 

18.     Probably. 

9. 
0. 

With  rashness. 
Certainly. 

19.  Within  reason. 

20.  Alone. 

List  of 

THE    PRINCIPAL 

Prepositions  in  Common  Use. 

aboard, 

behind, 

for, 

throughout, 

about, 

below, 

from, 

till, 

above, 

beneath, 

in, 

to, 

across, 

beside, 

into, 

touching, 

after, 

besides, 

of, 

toward, 

against, 

between, 

off, 

towards, 

along, 

betwixt, 

on, 

under, 

amid, 

beyond, 

over, 

underneath, 

amidst, 

but, 

past, 

until, 

among, 

by, 

pending, 

unto, 

amongst, 

concerning, 

regarding, 

up, 

around, 

down, 

respecting, 

upon, 

at, 

during, 

round, 

with, 

athwart, 

ere, 

since,' 

within, 

before, 

except, 

through, 

without. 

Notes. — I.  The  words  of  the  above  list  ending  in  ing  were  originally  participles  and  are 
sometimes  so  used. 

Example  1. — The  young  man,  respecting  (or  regarding  =  having  respect  or  regard  for)  his 
father's  wishes,  decided  to  change  his  plans  (part.). 

There  is  but  one  opinion  respecting  (or  regarding  or  concerning  =  with  reference  to)  his  con. 
duct  (prep.). 

Example  2. — The  boat  steamed  down  the  river,  touching  at  various  points  for  passengers 
(part.). 

Touching  (=  regarding  or  concerning)  the  points  you  mention  we  have  no  information  (prep.). 

II.  The  words  after,  before,  below,  but,  under,  up,  off,  on,  round,  within,  etc.,  are  used  either 
as  prepositions,  as  conjunctions,  or  as  adverbs,  according  to  the  relation  which  they  sustain  to 
other  words.  Prepositions  usually  become  adverbs  when  the  object  is  omitted :  as,  "  Walk  in." 
"  They  passed  by." 

Example  1. — We  stood  before  the  fire  (prep.).     You  are  telling  me  what  I  knew  before  (adv.). 

Example  2. — We  waited  until  the  arrival  of  the  steamer  (prep.).  We  waited  until  the 
steamer  arrived  (conj.). 

III.  Two  or  more  prepositions  are  sometimes  combined,  expressing  a  single  relation:  as, 
According  to,  from  out,  out  of,  over  against,  from  before,  from  beyond,  instead  of. 


THE    PREPOSITION".  67 

I'v.  The  preposition  into  expresses  relation  produced  by  change  from  one  condition  or 
place  to  another;  and  in  denotes  motion  or  rest  in  a  condition  or  place.  Hence,  "To  walk 
into  the  house,"  means  to  walk  from  the  outside  to  the  inside  of  the  house,  while,  "To  walk 
in  the  house,"  means  to  walk  after  getting  inside  of  the  house. 

V.  Between  is  generally  used  when  reference  is  made  to  two  things  or  persons;  among, 
when  more  than  two  are  referred  to;  but  this  rule  is  not  followed  strictly  by  good  writers. 
Such  expressions  as  "  Reading  between  the  lines,"  "  Leaving  spaces  between  the  letters,"  etc., 
are  common,  and  are  accepted  as  correct. 

VI.  In  and  on  have  a  broader  meaning  than  at,  with  reference  to  both  time  and  place:  as, 
"At  sunrise  in  the  morning."  "At  noon  on  Monday."  "He  lives  in  Chicago,  on  Dearborn 
Ave.,  at  No.  2040."     "  We  arrived  in  New  York  at  the  Grand  Central  Station." 

VII.  But  and  save  are  prepositions  when  equivalent  to  except:  as,  " They  were  all  saved 
but  one."  A  is  a  preposition  when  used  in  the  sense  of  per:  as,  "I  ride  twice  a  (per)  day," 
and  combines,  as  the  equivalent  of  at,  on,  etc.,  with  other  words  to  form  such  compounds  as, 
asleep,  aground,  etc. 

VIII.  Other  words  than  those  given  in  the  preceding  list  and  notes  are  sometimes 
used  as  prepositions.  If  the  student  wishes  to  know  whether  a  given  word  may  be  used  as  a 
preposition,  or  as  any -other  part  of  speech,  he  can  always  get  the  information  in  some  good 
unabridged  dictionary. 

Exercise  94. — Determine  which  of  the  italicized  words  in  the  following  sen- 
tences are  prepositions,  which  adverbs  or  adjectives,  and  which  conjunctions,  and 
correct  those  not  properly  used.     (Four  of  the  sentences  contain  errors.) 

1.  The  inspector  is  off  on  his  western  trip. 

2.  I  have  not  been  off  my  feet  to-day. 

3.  When  do  you  expect  to  come  over? 

4.  The  player  ran  his  fingers  over  the  keys. 

5.  There  is  no  finer  building  the  whole  country  over. 

6.  He  got  his  pay  and  a  dollar  over. 

7.  The  young  man  has  worked  his  way  up. 

8.  It  was  hard  rowing  vp  stream. 

9.  There  does  not  seem  to  be  any  one  about. 

10.  We  are  about  to  begin. 

11.  John  called  for  James  and  they  left  about  fifteen  minutes  after. 

12.  His  character  is  above  reproach. 

13.  The  captain  staid  above  ichile  the  mate  went  below  to  examine  the  leak. 

14.  "Our  fruitful  Nile  flowed  ere  the  wonted  season.  ' 

15.  They  live  at  Boston,  in  Tenth  street,  on  No.  64. 

16.  Put  the  basket  of  apples  in  the  wagon. 

17.  The  year  o/the  Restoration  plunged  Milton  in  bitter  poverty. 

18.  Butter  brings  twenty  cents/or  a  pound. 

19.  "None  but  the  brave  deserve  the  fair." 

20.  Pending  the  trial  a  petition  was  circulated  asking  foi  his  release. 

21.  I  am  under  obligations  to  you,  as,  but  for  your  help,  I  should  have  gone  under. 

22.  The  case  comes  within  the  statute. 

23.  Please  sign  and  return  the  within  notes. 

24.  There  is  no  one  within. 

25.  The  messenger  will  be  here  within  an  hour. 


6S  PRACTICAL   ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 


LESSOR   33. 


The  Pre  position  —  Continued. 

050.  A  Proposition  governing  a  relative  <>r  an  interrogative  pronoun  is  often 
placed  at  the  end  of  the  sentence,  and  at  a  distance  from  the  word  governed:  as, — 

Whom  did  you  write  to?  Which  room  shall  I  find  it  in?  What  is  copper  useful  for?  Whose 
house  did  you  stop  at?    This  is  the  party  whom  I  spoke  of. 

Note. — This  form  is  allowed  in  familiar  styles  of  expression,  especially  where  it  is  desired 
to  emphasize  the  preposition,  but,  in  other  cases  it  is  usually  better  to  place  the  preposition 
before  the  pronoun:  as,  To  whom  did  you  write? 

260.  "When  two  or  more  prepositions  in  a  sentence  refer  jointly  to  a  noun, 
it  is  better  to  place  the  noun  after  the  first  preposition,  and  a  pronoun  repre- 
senting the  noun  after  each  of  the  others. 

The  sentence,  "  He  is  unacquainted  with,  and  hence  cannot  speak  upon,  nor  give  advice 
concerning  the  matter,"  should  read,  "He  is  unacquainted  with  the  matter,  and  hence  cannot 
speak  upon  it  nor  give  advice  concerning  it." 

261.  Omission  of  Preposition. — Prepositions  should  not  be  omitted  when 
they  are  needed  to  complete  the  sense. 

"Egypt  is  the  west  side  of  the  Red  Sea,"  should  read,  "  Egypt  is  on  the  west  side,"  etc. 
"  Ignorance  is  the  mother  of  fear  as  well  as  admiration,"  should  read,  "Ignorance  is  the 
mother  of  fear  as  well  as  of  admiration." 

262.  The  unnecessary  use  of  prepositions  should  be  avoided. 

"  Where  is  he  going  to?"  should  read,  "  Where  is  he  going?" 

"I  went  there  at  about  noon,"  should  read,  "I  went  there  at  noon"  (exact  time),  or,  "I 
■went  there  about  noon  "  (approximate  time). 

263.  Prepositional  phrase  modifiers  should  be  so  placed  as  to  make  clear 
what  words  they  are  intended  to  modify. 

The  sentence,  "  He  went  to  town  driving  a  flock  of  sheep  on  horseback,"  should  read,  "He 
went  to  town  on  horseback,"  etc. 

Note. — Smoothness  of  sound  must  also  be  considered  in  placing  phrases. 

Exercise  95. — Correct  the  errors  in  the  following  sentences: 

1.  He  plunged  into,  and  swam  across,  the  river 

2.  The  second  proposal  was  different  from,  though  a  result  of  the  first. 

3.  I  never  could  understand  at  what  he  was  aiming  anyway. 

4.  He  is  worthy  our  charity. 

5.  His  efforts  were  not  for  the  great  but  the  lowly. 

6.  San  Francisco  is  the  other  side  of  the  Rocky  Mountains. 

7.  Let  us  consider  the  works  of  nature  and  art. 

8.  He  received  dispatches  from  England  and  Russia. 

9.  Many  talented  men  have  deserted  from  the  party. 

10.  The  performance  was  approved  by  all  who  saw  it. 

11.  Lift  the  box  off  of  the  floor. 

12.  This  is  the  subject  of  which  I  intended  to  speak  about. 


THE   PKEPOSITION,    CONTINUED.  69 


13.  He  lives  near  to  the  river. 

14.  We  were  prevented  returning  sooner. 

15.  The  tall  stranger  is  speaking  now  with  the  dark  side  whiskers. 

16.  Habits  must  be  acquired  of  temperance  and  of  self-denial. 

17.  A  young  man  was  arrested  last  night  a  few  doors  from  where  we  stopped  in  a  state  of 
intoxication. 

18.  We  bought  our  tickets  before  boarding  the  train  at  the  Main  St.  office. 

19.  The  young  lady  plays  beautifully  on  the  harp  with  the  light  blue  eyes  and  fair  com- 
plexion. 

20.  These  designs  were  drawn  last  summer  by  an  artist  who  came  here  and  died  to  pass 
away  the  time. 

264.  Appropriate  Use  of  Prepositions. — In  selecting  prepositions  care 
must  be  taken  to  choose  those  that  are  appropriate  to  the  words  to  which  they 
relate.  To  be  able  to  do  this  one  must  know  not  only  the  various  relations 
expressed  by  different  prepositions,  but  also  the  different  relations  possible  with 
the  same  prepositions. 

Note. — This  knowledge  can  be  gained  from  dictionaries  and  other  books  on  words,  also 
from  observation  of  thjB  use  of  the  preposition  by  good  authors. 

265.  The  preposition  may  be  studied  according  to  the  plan  suggested  in  the 
following  lists,  which  can  be  extended  as  desired: 

Verbs  and  Participles.  Appropriate  Prepositions. 

1.  Adapted    -    -    -    -  to  (a  thing);  for  (a  purpose);  from  (an  author). 

2.  Agree with  (persons);  to  (things). 

3.  Attend      -     -    -     -  to  (listen);  upon  (wait). 

4.  Bestow      -    -    -    -  in  (places);  upon  (persons). 

5.  Besiege     -    -    -     -  in  (positions);  with  (weapons). 

6.  Confer       -     -     -     -  on  (give);  with  (converse). 

7.  Confide     -     -     -     -  in  (to  place  confidence);  to  (intrust). 

8.  Converse  -    -    -    -  with  (persons);  about  (subjects). 

9.  Correspond   -    -    -  with  (by  letter);  to  (similar  things). 

10.  Differ with  (in  opinion);  from  (in  appearance). 

11.  Divide  -    -  between  (two);  among  (more). 

12.  Disappointed     -    -  of  (what  we  expect);  in  (what  we  get). 

13.  Enter into  (agreements);  upon  (duties);  in  (a  record);  at  (a  given  point). 

14.  Employ     •     -    -    -  in  (to  occupy);  for  (a  purpose). 

15.  Familiarize    -    -     -  to  (scenes);  with  (a  business,  etc.) 

Nouns.  Appropriate  Prepositions. 

1.  Adaptation      -    -    -  of  (means);  to  (an  end);  for  (a  purpose). 

2.  Attendance     -    -    -  upon  (service);  to  (attention);  at  (presence). 

3.  Advantage      -     -     -  of  (favoring  condition);  over  (a  competitor). 

4.  Warrant      ....  for  (authority);  of  (guaranty). 

5.  Yearning    -     -     -    -  for  (things);  towards  or  after  (persons). 

Adjectives.  Appropriate  Prepositions. 

1.  Angry at  (things);  with  (persons). 

2.  Anxious      -    -         -  about  (persons);  for  (results). 

3.  Analagous       -    -    -  to  (something  else);  in  (certain  respects). 

4.  Useful for  (a  purpose);  to  (persons);  in  (a  degree). 

5.  Watchful    -     -    -     -  of  (what  should  be  done);  against  (what  should  be  avoided). 


70 


PRACTICAL   ENGLISII   GRAMMAR. 


Note. — Students  should  be  encouraged  to  expand  the  preceding  lists  for  themselves.  It  is 
suggested  that  a  book  of  record  convenient  for  carrying  in  the  pocket  be  kept,  in  which  the 
words  can  be  entered  as  occasions  offer  for  looking  them  up  or  noting  their  use. 

Exercise  96. — Construct  sentences  showing  what  prepositions  can  be  used 
appropriately  with  the  following  words: 


1.  Accommodate, 

'-'.  Argue, 

3.  Believe, 

4.  Beguile, 

5.  Careless, 

6.  Communicate, 

7.  Die, 

8.  Disgusted, 

9.  Embark, 

10.  Free, 

11.  Grief, 

12.  Hopeful, 

13.  Insensible, 

14.  Just, 

15.  Kind, 


16.  Liberal, 

17.  Make, 

18.  Necessity, 

19.  Obliged, 

20.  Part, 

21.  Question, 

22.  Reconcile, 

23.  Share, 

24.  Touch, 

25.  Urgent, 

26.  Vexed, 

27.  Write, 

28.  Waiting, 

29.  Yield, 

30.  Zealous. 


Exercise  97. — Supply  appropriate  prepositions  for  the  following  blanks: 


This  soil  is  adapted wheat. 

This  book  is  different that. 

John  differs James  in  stature. 

This  originated a  misunderstanding. 

We  were  followed  ...  a  crowd. 

He  lives the  turn  in  the  road. 

They  have  need our  assistance. 

We  found  them  thirsting know- 


ledge. 


9.  Much  sympathy  is  expressed them, 

but  there  seems  to  be  little themselves. 

10.  I  congratulate  you your  success. 

11.  We  rejoice your  determination  to 

hold  on. 

12.  Are  you  provided the  danger  ? 

13.  We  could  not  prevail him  to  go. 

14.  This  plan  is  preferable that. 

15.  His  friends  are  solicitous...  his  welfare. 


LESSOR  .34. 


Conjunctions. 
266.     A  conjunction  is  a  word  used  to  connect  words,  phrases,  and  clauses: 


1.  The  doors  and  windows  were  fastened.     (Words.) 

2.  To  bring  back  his  shield  or  to  be  carried  back  upon  it,  was  the  Spartan  mother's  charge  to 
her  son.     (Phrases.) 

3.  The  money  icas  speedily  raised  but  it  icas  unwisely  expended.    (Clauses.) 

4.  The  old  man  smiled  when  we  spoke  to  him.     (Clauses.) 


CONJUNCTIONS.  71 

267.     Conjunctions  are  divided  into  two  classes,  co-ordinate  conjunctions  and 

subordinate  conjunctions. 

'268.  Co-ordinate  conjunctions  connect  words,  phrases,  and  clauses  of  the 
same  rank;  that  is,  those  that  are  independent  of  each  other. 

Note. — In  the  first  sentence  quoted  above,  each  of  the  subjects  doors  and  icindows  is  equal 
to  the  other  in  its  relation  to  the  verb  were  fastened.  Neither  one  is  dependent  upon  the  other, 
and  if  either  of  the  words  should  be  omitted  the  relation  of  the  other  to  the  verb  would  remain 
unchanged.  The  same  is  true  of  the  phrase  subjects  in  the  second  sentence;  and  in  the  third 
sentence  each  of  the  clauses  connected  by  but  is  entirely  independent  of  the  other,  and  expresses 
the  thought  intended  completely,  whether  the  other  is  used  or  not. 

These  words,  phrases,  and  clauses  are  therefore  said  to  be  of  the  same  rank  or  order,  and 
the  conjunctions  connecting  them  are  very  properly  called  co-ordinate. 

269.  The  words  most  frequently  used  as  co-ordinate  conjunctions  are: 
and,  but,  or,  nor,  therefore. 

Some  of  th,e  other  words  usea  as  co-ordinate  conjunctions  are: 
yet,  also,  still,  however,  consequently,  accordingly,  nevertheless. 

270.  Subordinate  conjunctions  connect  clauses  of  different  rank. 

Note. — In  the  fourth  sentence  quoted  above,  the  clause,  When  we  spoke  to  Mm,  is  used  to 
tell  wher>  the  old  man  smiled,  and  is  therefore  an  adverbial  modifier  of  the  verb  smiled.  Any 
clause  that  is  used  to  modify  some  word  or  words  in  another  clause  is  dependent  upon  the  other 
to  express  its  meaning  fully,  and  being  a  mere  modifier,  it  is  said  not  to  be  of  the  same  rank. 
For  this  reason  the  conjunctions  connecting  such  clauses  are  called  subordinate. 

271.  The  subordinate  conjunctions  in  common  use  are: 

if,  unless,  though,  that,  lest,  than,  since,  because;  the  conjunctive  adverbs,  when,  where, 
why,  how,  while,  before,  after,  until,  ere,  till,  as;  and  the  relative  pronouns. 

Note. — Conjunctive  phrases  are  sometimes  used  to  connect  clauses:  as,  Provided  that,  as 
if,  as  well  as,  as  far  as,  etc. 

272.  Correlatives. — Words  are  sometimes  used  in  pairs  as  conjunctions,  and 
they  are  then  called  correlatives:  as, — 

I  would  rather  go  than  stay.     Either  you  or  I  must  go. 

273.  The  principal  correlatives  are: 

As    -     -     •     -     as;  Such      -    -    -     as; 

As    -     -     -     -     so;  Such     -    -     -     that; 

Both      -     -     -     and;  Though     -     -    yet; 

Either  -     -    -    or;  *Sooner  \ 

If     ....     then;  Rather     -  -     -     than; 

Neither     -    -    nor;  Other      ' 

So     -     -     -     -     as;  Whether    -     -     or. 

So  -  -  -  -  that; 
Note. — If  the  first  correlative  in  each  pair  is  not  a  conjunction  it  is  either  an  adjective  or  an 
adverb,  in  which  case  it  performs  its  usual  office  as  a  modifier,  and  gives  force  to  the  second 
correlative.  For  example,  in  the  sentence,  "We  walked  farther  than  we  rode,"  fartlier  is  an 
adverb  modifying  walked,  and  than  is  a  conjunction,  connecting  the  clause  we  rode  to  the  pre- 
ceding clause  as  a  modifier. 


*Any  adjective  or  adverb  in  the  comparative  degree  may  be  used  as  a  correlative  of  than: 
as,  Lead  is  heavier  than  tin.     (Adj.)    Light  travels  faster  than  sound.     (Adv.) 


;■'  PKACTICAL   ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

Exercise  98. — In  the  following  sentences  supply  the  proper  conjunctions, 
state  the  kind,  and  tell  what  they  connect: 

1.  Take  heed you  fall. 

2.  Apples  are scarce the  price  will  be  high. 

3.  Visitors  have  arrived  in numbers the  hotels  are  crowded. 

4.  Come the  rush  begins. 

5.  To  cross  now  might  be  possible, it  would  not  be  prudent. 

6.  I  have  seen  several buildings you  describe. 

7.  I  feared I  should  be  late. 

8.     Henry William  will  go. 

9.  The  men  were placed to  be  within  easy  reach. 

10.  It  was  argued the  will  was  executed  by  him fraud  had  been  practiced 

undue  influence  exercised. 

11.  I  do  not  entirely  favor  the  project; I  will  render assistance  ...  I  can. 

12.  General  advertising  is  of great  value  to  the  advertiser  in  keeping  an  established 

article  before  the  public in  introducing  a  new  one, ,  advertise. 


LESSOR   35. 


Conjunctions  —  Continued. 

274.  The  conjunctions,  and,  that,  hut,  etc.,  are  sometimes  used  merely  to 
introduce  sentences.  When  so  used  they  generally  indicate  a  continuation  of 
the  preceding  thought  or  discourse:  as, — 

"  But,  to  return  to  my  story."     "And  it  came  to  pass." 

275.  When  a  word  or  phrase  has  a  common  dependence  on  two  or  more 
connected  words  or  phrases,  it  should  make  good  sense  with  each:  as, — 

"Bread  is  more  nutritious,  but  not  so  cheap  as  potatoes,"  should  read,  "Bread  is  more 
nutritious  than  but  not  so  cheap  as  potatoes,"  or,  "  Bread  is  more  nutritious  than  potatoes  but 
not  so  cheap." 

276.  Co-ordinate  and  correlative  conjunctions  should  not  be  used  to  join 
different  forms  of  elements:  as, — 

"He  managed  the  business  'promptly  and  with  caution,'"  should  read  either,  "promptly  and 
cautiously,"  or,  "with  promptness  and  caution." 

277.  Care  should  be  taken  that  the  proper  correlatives  be  used  together, 
and  that  they  stand  where  they  belong.  It  is  a  common  error  to  place  one  of  the 
correlatives  before  a  verb  and  the  other  before  some  other  part  of  speech:  as, — 

"  We  should  both  consider  the  advantages  and  the  disadvantages  of  the  plan."  This  sen- 
tence should  read:  "  We  should  consider  both  the  advantages,  etc." 

278.  Than. — The  conjunction  than  should  introduce  the  latter  term  of  a 
comparison  after  else,  other,  rather,  and  all  comparatives  except  preferable,  dif- 
ferent, etc. :  as, — 

"A  corrupt  government  is  nothing  else  than  a  reigning  sin."  "His  second  statement  was 
quite  different  from  his  first  one." 


CONJUNCTIONS,    CONTINUED.  73 

But  else,  other,  and  more,  implying  something  additional  of  the  same  kind  may 
be  followed  by  besides :  as, — 

"  He  can  converse  on  other  topics  besides  politics." 

279.  As  and    So. — When  the  correlatives,  as as,  and,  so as,  are 

used  to  connect  terms  denoting  a  comparison,  as  should  follow  so  if  a  negative 

is  expressed:  as, — 

"  Is  the  water  as  high  as  it  was?  "     "  It  is  not  so  high  as  it  was  reported  to  be." 

280.  As  is  sometimes  improperly  used  for  that  in  such  sentences  as: 
"  I  do  not  know  as  I  shall  try."    As  should  be  that. 

281.  What  is  also  used  improperly  for  that:  as, — 
"  I  do  not  know  but  icliat  I  may  build."     What  should  be  that. 

282.  But  that. — In  using  the  expression  hut  that,  care  must  be  taken  that 
the  words  convey  just  the  meaning  intended. 

The  sentences,  "I  do  not  know  that  the  story  is  true,"  and,  "I  do  not  know  but  that  the 
story  is  true,"  convey  very  different  meanings,  the  first  implying  denial  or  disbelief  and  the 
second  possibility  of  its  truth. 

283.  •   Lest  should  not  be  used  for  that  when  fear  or  anxiety  is  expressed:  as, — 
"  I  feared  lest  I  should  be  late."    Lest  should  be  that. 

Note. — The  conjunction  and  is  sometimes  improperly  used  for  the  infinitive  sign:  as,  "I 
will  try  and  do  better  next  time. "    And  should  be  to. 

Exercise  99. — Supply  the  proper  conjunctions  and  correct  the  errors  in  the 

following  sentences: 

1.  Cornwallis  could  not  do  otherwise surrender. 

2.  Let  us  not  only  consider  the  lesson,  but  also  the  application. 

3.  The  prisoner  will  receive  either  ten  days'  imprisonment  or  be  fined  several  dollars 

4.  I  do  not  deny he  has  intelligence. 

5.  Your  work  is  not well  done it  ought  to  be. 

6.  She  is  equally  deserving  as  her  sister. 

7.  No  errors  are  so  unimportant  but  they  deserve  correction. 

8.  Neither  he  ...  his  brother  is  making  the  most  of  his  opportunities. 

9.  Has  he  no  other  motive that? 

10.  They  think  of  little  else what  is  fashionable  and  popular. 

11.  There  is  no  doubt  but  what  he  is  well  fitted  for  the  work. 

12.  I  could buy  it borrow  it. 

13.  At  the  time  that  I  knew  her  she  was  an  earnest  student. 

14.  Some  useful  lessons,  and  which  I  shall  never  forget,  I  learned  from  him. 

15.  Hjive  you  heard she  has  arrived? 

16.  He  may  know  more  and  write  better,  but  he  does  not  talk  so  well  as  his  father  did. 

17.  Try  ...    do  your  duty  bravely. 

18.  The  cold  rather  seemed  to  increase  than  to  decrease. 

19 the  contest  will  take  place  has  not  been  decided. 

20 the  fare  was  homely  . .  .It  was  very  acceptable. 

21 he  is  innocent  is  generally  believed. 

22.  That  work  always  has  and  always  will  be  read. 

23.  He  commenced he  intended  to  succeed. 

24.  I  do  not  know that  will  be  enough. 


74-  PRACTICAL    KMil.JSir    GRAMMAR. 

LESSOR   36. 


Interjections. 

•JS4-.  An  interjection  is  a  word  whicli  is  not  related  to  the  other  words  in  a 
sentence,  but  is  thrown  in  to  express  some  sudden  or  strong  feeling. 

285.  Interjections  may  be  classed  as  follows:  Primitive  Interjections  and 
Derivative  Interjections. 

286.  Primitive  Interjections  are  natural  exclamations,  expressing  passion 
or  feeling,  and  consisting  mainly  of  those  sounds  or  utterances  resulting  from  the 
position  of  the  organs  of  speech  during  emotion:  as, — 

Oh!    Expressing  wonder  or  astonishment,  or  pleasure;  also  sharp  and  sudden  pain,  et 
Ah!    Expressing  regret  or  complaint;  also,  with  prolonged  utterance,  to  denote  pain  a' 
panied  with  grief  or  languor. 

Tut!    Used  to  rebuke  or  silence. 

Ugh!    Indicating  loathing  or  aversion. 

Pshaw!  Poh!  Pugh!   Tush!    Denoting  contempt  or  disdain. 

287.  Derivative  Interjections  are  exclamations  expressing  a  state  of  the 
will,  and  consisting  mostly  of  words  derived  from  other  parts  of  speech:  as, — 

Hush!  hark!  behold!    (Verbs.) 

Shocking!  Going!  going!  gone!    (Participles.) 

Silence!  Game!  Victory!    (Nouns.) 

Good!  Delightful!  Keady!    (Adjectives.) 

Never!  Quickly!    (Adverbs). 

Exercise  100. — Classify  and  use  with  sentences  the  following  interjections: 


1. 

Fire! 

8. 

Welcome! 

15. 

Faster ! 

22. 

Encore! 

2. 

Hurrah ! 

9. 

Halt! 

16. 

There! 

23. 

Now! 

3. 

Hello! 

10. 

Halloo! 

17. 

Aha! 

24. 

Chirr! 

4. 

Whoa  I 

11. 

Go! 

18. 

Quack! 

25. 

Peep! 

5. 

Fie  J 

12. 

Alas! 

19. 

Snap! 

26. 

Away! 

6. 

Horrors! 

13. 

Charming! 

20. 

Begone ! 

27. 

Out! 

7. 

Hail! 

14. 

Hallelujah! 

21. 

Safe! 

28. 

Congratulations! 

Notes. — I.  The  literal  meaning  of  the  word  interjection  indicates  that  it  is  something  thrown 
between  or  among,  and  it  may  be  placed  anywhere  in  the  sentence,  but  it  is  generally  used  at 
the  beginning. 

II.  The  interjection  0  is  frequently  prefixed  to  nouns  and  pronouns  independent  by  direct 
address,  and  it  is  then  not  ordinarily  followed  by  the  exclamation  point:  as,  "  Hear,  O  heavens, 
and  give  ear,  O  earth ! "     "  O  Absalom,  my  son ! "     "  O  upright  j udge ! " 

II.  The  interjection  Oh  is  generally  used  in  connection  with  some  statement,  question,  or 
wish,  and,  if  the  whole  expression  is  exclamatory,  may  be  followed  by  the  comma:  as,  Oh!  Now 
I  can  do  it.     Oh!  What  have  you  done?    Oh,  that  I  knew  where  I  might  find  him! 

Exercise  lOl. — Punctuate  and  capitalize  the  following  expressions: 

1.  Judge  O  you  gods  how  dearly  Caesar  loved  him. 

2.  Oh  what  a  fall  was  there  my  countrymen. 

3.  Oh  now  you  weep. 

4.  O  piteous  spectacle. 


PRINCIPLES    OF    EXPRESSION".  75 

5.  O  noble  Caesar. 

6.  Oh  grief  hath  changed  me  since  you  saw  me  last. 

7.  Oh  that  your  highness  knew  my  heart  in  this. 

8.  Ho  every  one  that  thirsteth. 

9.  How  short  alas  is  life. 

10.  Ready  present  fire. 

11.  Forward  march. 

12.  Hail  gentle  spring. 

Note. — Interjections,  expressing  the  multiplied  emotions  of  the  human  mind,  and  lending 
their  aid  where  other  language  fails  in  this  respect,  contribute  much,  when  rightly  used,  to 
render  language  an  exact  expression  of  thought;  but  a  caution  may  be  proper  here  against 
those  exaggerated  forms  of  exclamations  so  often  heard,  so  difficult  to  avoid  when  the  habit 
of  using  them  has  been  once  formed,  and  which  serve  so  well  to  cheapen  expression  and  cast 
discredit,  in  general,  upon  the  utterances  of  those  who  employ  them.  Let  our  interjections  be 
expressions  of  real  feeling,  not  mere  affectations. 


LESSOE"   37. 


Principles  of  Expression. 

288.  Retrospective. — In  the  preceding  lessons  we  have  studied  words  under 
the  several  classes  to  which  they  belong,  and  have  presented  the  principal  rules 
generally  accepted  as  governing  their  use,  noting  as  we  went  along  some  of  the 
errors  common  to  each  class. 

We  have  also  given  some  attention  to  the  selection  of  appropriate  words,  and  to 
the  framing  of  brief  original  constructions. 

289.  Prospective. — We  pass  now  to  exercises  in  selection  and  construction 
of  a  more  extended  and  general  character. 

These  exercises  will,  if  practiced  properly,  serve  to  develop  facility  and  effect- 
iveness of  expression.  Before  taking  them  up,  however,  we  stop  to  consider 
briefly  a  few  very  important  principles. 

290.  The  object  of  language  should  be  the  expression  of  thought  in  the 
clearest  and  most  attractive  manner.  Every  writer  or  speaker  will,  of  course, 
have  a  style  of  expression  peculiar  to  himself,  but  there  are  some  cptalities  essen- 
tial to  all  good  styles;  namely,  clearness,  force,  and  harmony. 

291.  Clearness. — 1.     Clear  Thinking. — Clear  writing  requires  clear  thinking. 

One  cannot  convey  clearly  to  others  what  is  vague  or  indistinct  in  his  own  mind 
The  habit  of  writing  or  speaking  without  first  knowing  definitely  what  we  intena 
to  say  will  invariably  produce  an  obscure  and  slovenly  style  of  expression,  and 
just  as  surely  will  careful  and  diligent  thought  find  expression  in  a  clear  and 
effective  style. 


Is!! 


?6  PUACTICAL   ENGLISH    GItAMMAB. 

2.  Unity  of  Thought. — Another  essential  of  clearness  is  the  unity  of  thought 
in  the  sentence. 

Every  sentence  should  have  one,  and  only  one,  principal  subject  of  thought. 
The  sentence  may  be  long  and  consist  of  many  parts;  but  the  parts  should  be  so 
closely  and  skillfully  combined  as  to  give  the  impression  of  one  symmetrical  whole. 

To  maintain  unity: 

a.  Change  the  subject  as  little  as  possible  in  the  course  of  the  sentence. 

b.  Do  not  crowd  into  one  sentence  things  that  have  so  little  relation  to  each 
other  that  they  may  properly  be  expressed  in  two  or  more  sentences. 

c.  Do  not  modify  a  relative  clause,  which  is  itself  dependent,  by  another  rela- 
tive clause. 

d.  Supplementary  clauses  at  the  end  should  be  avoided. 

3.  Paragraphing. — The  grouping  of  the  sentences  that  bear  upon  some  given 
point  or  idea  into  paragraphs,  and  the  arrangement  of  paragraphs  in  a  logical 
order,  instead  of  throwing  them  together  promiscuously,  are  aids  to  clearness. 

•i.  The  Proper  Use  of  Words. — This  requires  knowledge  of  the  exact  meaning 
of  the  words  we  use;  care  in  the  use  of  synonyms;  avoidance  of  the  use  of  unnec- 
essary words;  simplicity — a  preference  for  small  words. 

5.  Ambiguous  expressions  must  not  be  used.  (For  illustrations  of  ambiguity, 
see  lessons  12,  14,  28,  31,  and  33.) 

292.  Force. — This  element  is  sometimes  called  strength  or  energy,  and  is  that 
quality  of  style  by  which  thought  is  expressed  forcibly  and  vividly. 

Note. — Mere  correctness  and  consistency  of  expression  are  not  all  the  qualities  necessary  to 
effectiveness.  The  words  of  a  sentence  may  be  chosen  in  accordance  with  the  requirements  of 
good  diction,  and  its  parts  be  so  arranged  as  to  violate  no  rule  of  grammar,  yet  force  or  effect- 
iveness may  be  lacking.  The  choice  of  words  and  the  construction  of  the  sentence  should  be 
such  as  to  give  the  thought  the  strongest  impression  of  which  it  is  capable. 

All  that  was  said  regarding  clearness  will  apply  to  force,  as  whatever  produces 
clearness  tends  to  force,  but  in  addition  the  following  suggestions  are  offered: 

1.  Brevity,  which  is  gained  by  choosing  apt  words,  and  omitting  redundant 
or  superfluous  expressions;  also,  by  contracting  or  abridging  statements.  This 
must  not,  however,  be  carried  to  the  point  of  rendering  the  meaning  obscure. 

2.  Position.  Give  the  principal  words  a  conspicuous  position,  so  that  they 
may  make  their  full  impression.  Sometimes,  for  example,  the  sense  is  rendered 
more  forcible  by  putting  the  subject  at  the  end  of  the  sentence. 

3.  Conjunctions.  Both  the  repetition  and  the  omission  of  conjunctions  may 
serve  to  give  force  to  expressions. 

Note. — When  a  deliberate  enumeration  of  particulars  which  are  designed  to  impress  the 
mind  forcibly  is  used  the  conjunction  is  repeated:  as,  "Such  a  man  might  fall  a  victim  to 
power;  but  truth,  and  reason,  and  liberty,  would  fall  with  him." 

On  the  other  hand,  when  the  conjunction  is  omitted,  the  mind  passes  more  quickly  from 
one  thought  to  the  next:  as,  "I  came,  I  saw,  I  conquered." 


PRINCIPLES   OF   EXPRESSION.  77 

4.  Contrast.  The  force  of  a  statement  may  frequently  be  intensified  by  placing 
it  in  contrast  or  comparison  with  another:  as, — 

John  is  a  better  writer,  but  William  is  a  better  reader;  or,  John  writes  the  better  but 
William  reads  the  better. 

James  may  work  longer  but  he  does  not  accomplish  more  than  Henry. 

5.  Climax.  Arrange  the  clauses  with  a  view  to  climax:  that  is,  so  that  they 
shall  go  on  increasing  in  importance  to  the  last.  A  general  rule  in  this  connec- 
tion is,  that  even  in,  short  or  comparatively  short  sentences,  a  weaker  assertion, 
or  statement,  should  not  come  after  a  stronger  one,  and  the  longest  member 
should  generally  be  the  last  one. 

Note. — Other  figures  of  speech,  as  the  simile,  metaphor,  epigram,  irony,  etc.,  are  used  to 
give  force  and  variety  of  style.     The  student  can  find  them  fully  discussed  in  works  on  rhetoric. 

293.  Harmony,  or  Agreeableiiess  of  Sound. — This  is  the  last  and  per- 
haps the  least  important  cptality  to  be  considered.  Sense  should  never  be  sacri- 
ficed to  sound-     A  few  rules  to  be  observed  are: 

1.  Select  the  most  melodious  words. 

2.  Avoid  all  disagreeable  combinations  of  sounds. 

3.  Arrange  the  clauses  with  a  view  to  ease  in  pronunciation,  and  an  agreeable 
impression  upon  the  ear. 

4.  Adapt  the  sound  to  the  sense. 

Exercise  102. — 1.  Combine  the  following  statements  into  three  sentences  so 
arranged  as  to  secure  unity  of  thought: 

"  The  buildings  are  of  all  sizes  and  shapes.  They  seem  to  have  been  built  one  by  one  as 
occasion  required.  They  have  red- tiled  or  thatched  roofs.  The  furniture  looks  as  if  it  had 
served  for  generations.  The  stable  and  the  wood-shed  are  set  in  the  most  convenient  place; 
also  the  tool-house,  the  houses  for  chickens,  ducks,  and  geese,  and  even  the  large  brick  oven. 
They  are  set  without  regard  to  plan,  consequently  every  nook  and  corner  makes  a  picture. 
The  floors  of  the  houses  are  tiles  set  in  squares  or  diamonds." 

Note. — Let  the  teacher  give  such  additional  exercises  under  this  or  the  following  numbers 
as  may  be  desired. 

2.  Group  the  sentences  in  the  following  business  letter  into  three  paragraphs: 
Gentlemen, — We  have  during  the  past  year  built  a  large  addition  to  our  factory.  No.  27  State 

St.,  and  have  equipped  the  same  with  the  latest  improved  machinery  in  order  to  supply  our 
constantly  increasing  trade.  Come  and  see  us  before  purchasing  elsewhere.  Our  vehicles 
have  gained  a  world  wide  reputation  and  we  are  now  prepared  to  supply  our  patrons  with  a 
better  grade  of  goods  and  for  less  money  than  any  other  factory  in  the  state.  We  cordially 
invite  all  our  patrons  to  come  and  see  our  new  factory  and  inspect  the  new  machinery  which 
is  now  running  full  blast.  We  have  also  added  to  our  stock  a  large  supply  of  all  kinds  of 
harness,  which  we  offer  at  the  lowest  possible  rates.  Thanking  you  for  your  former  patronage, 
we  are,  yours  respectfully,  etc. 

3.  In  the  following  sentences  substitute,  for  the  words  in  italics,  those  that 
express  the  meaning  intended: 

a.  The  financial  depression  has  effected  our  business  .?» 

b.  The  traveler  described  some  incredulous  stories. 

c.  I  remain,  yours  very  respectively. 

d.  He  taught  with  great  acceptation. 


78  PRACTICAL   ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

■A.  Explain  the  difference  in  meaning  conveyed  by  using  the  several  words 
enclosed  in  brackets  in  the  following: 

a.  His  great  ->     ■w;s<iOQf    "  (luan^es  n'm  lor  llie  position. 

b.  It  will  not  be  -j  p,.^,'.^',..'^,^,  [  for  us  to  conduct  our  business  on  that  plan. 
<=•    T Beer  spoke  j  "~S2»S&  H  "is  -«-«-• 

5.  Select  the  proper  word  in  each  of  the  following  sentences.     Give  reason. 

a.  Those  are  \  jJjSJjJjJj  j-  articles  of  food. 

b.  The  sky  looks  very  {  p^X}. 

C.     The  first  man  that  -     ,K!    [-  the  experiment  failed. 

6.  What  words  in  the  following  sentences  are  unnecessary? 

a.  There  is  nothing  which  is  more  beneficial  to  a  state  than  a  healthy  and  vigilant  public 
spirit. 

b.  I  went  home  from  the  lecture  full  of  a  great  many  new  ideas. 

c.  Hoping  that  a  speedy  and  amicable  arrangement  may  be  made  at  once,  I  remain,  etc. 

7.  Simplify  the  following  exjiressions  by  substituting  shorter  words  and  phrases: 

a.  We  have  partaken  of  our  morning  repast. 

b.  For  what  reason  should  we  get  under  locomotion  at  this  particular  moment? 

c.  I  shall  assiduously  endeavor  to  perform  with  satisfaction  to  mj'  employer  such  duties  as 
he  may  designate. 

8.  Change  the  following  constructions  so  as  to  overcome  the  ambiguity: 

a.  Mr.  Johnson  told  Mr.  Wilson  that  the  price  be  had  been  asking  for  his  property  seemed 
to  be  higher  than  purchasers  were  willing  to  pay  and  he  asked  him  if  it  would  not  be  well  to 
make  a  reduction. 

b.  Please  excuse  Charles  for  absence  from  school  caused  by  his  mother's  sickness  which  I 
assure  you  shall  not  occur  again. 

c.  Shoes  made  to  order  by  a  first-class  shoemaker  with  patent  leather  tips,  stylish,  but 
inexpensive. 

d.  Any  assistance  you  may  render  Mr.  Miller  by  giving  him  such  introductions  as  will  tend 
to  promote  his  welfare,  or  otherwise,  will  be  appreciated. 

e.  I  have  read  your  advertisement  which  I  enclose  in  this  morning's  Herald  for  a  book- 
keeper, etc. 

f.  Last  evening  I  counted  500  stars  sitting  on  our  front  steps. 

9.  Make  the  following  expressions  stronger  by  contrast: 

Example. — The  days  diminished  in  length.  The  progress  of  the  work  increased.  =  Though 
the  days  became  shorter  yet  the  work  progressed  more  rapidly. 

a.  The  conditions  were  unfavorable.     The  speed  of  tbe  steamer  was  unequaled. 

b.  Our  train  was  an  hour  late  in  starting.     We  arrived  5  minutes  ahead  of  time. 

c.  Note  the  strength  of  the  following  sentence:  "  Whatever  may  be  thought  of  the  utlier 
contents  of  this  letter,  the  absolute  truth  of  this  last  statement  is  incontestable."  Can  you 
make  it  stronger? 

10.  Arrange  the  following  sentences  in  order  of  climax: 

a.  "We  must  fight  if  we  wish  to  be  free,  if  we  mean  to  preserve  inviolate  our  rights,  if 
we  do  not  mean  to  abandon  the  struggle." 


SYNONYMS.  79 

b.  "I  voted  for  this  principle  to-day,  I  shall  vote  for  it  in  the  future,  and  I  have  voted  for 
it  in  the  past. 

c.  "If  we  think  of  morals  without  a  stain;  of  the  purest  patriotism;  of  wisdom  in  the 
cabinet;  of  the  highest  integrity,  public  and  private;  of  glory  in  the  field,— the  august  figure 
of  Washington  presents  itself  as  the  personation  of  all  these  ideals." 


LESSOR   38. 


Synonyms. 

294.  Synonyms. — Many  of  the  words  of  our  language  are  so  nearly  alike  in 
sound,  spelling,  or  meaning,  that  inaccuracy  in  their  use  is  inevitable  with  those 
who  do  not  make  a  careful  study  of  them. 

Notes. — I.  Words- alike  in  sound,  such  as  vane,  vain,  vein;  rain,  rein,  reign;  strait,  straight; 
piece,  peace;  course,  coarse,  etc.,  are  confined  mostly  to  monosyllables,  and  are  not  difficult  to 
learn  thoroughly,  as  there  is  but  a  small  number  of  them  in  all. 

II.  The  same  may  be  said  of  words  nearly  alike  in  spelling  and  pronunciation  but  having 
marked  differences  in  meaning;  as,  avocation,  vocation;  respectfully,  respectively;  affect, 
effect;  emigrate,  immigrate;  difference,  deference,  etc.  Mistakes  in  the  use  of  words  of  these 
two  classes  are  considered  almost  inexcusable. 

The  design  of  this  lesson,  however,  is  to  call  attention  to  another  and  much  larger  class  of 
words,  known  as  synonyms. 

295.  A  synonym  is  a  word  which,  if  not  identical  in  use  and  meaning  with 
one  or  more  other  words,  is  so  nearly  of  the  same  signification  as  to  admit,  in 
certain  cases,  of  being  used  interchangeably  with  them. 

Note. — There  are  very  few  words  in  our  (or  any)  language  that  are  in  all  instances  exact 
equivalents  of  other  words,  and  only  careful  study  will  qualify  the  student  to  use  synonyms 
with  precision  on  account  of  the  many  close  distinctions  in  meaning  that  exist.  The  import- 
ance of  this  knowledge,  however,  is  sufficient  to  justify  diligent  and  systematic  effort  to  obtain 
it.  There  are  excellent  books  to  be  had  on  the  subject  of  synonyms  which  make  the  knowl- 
edge accessible  and  its  acquisition  pleasant. 

Example  1. — We  were  supplied  with  \  an  '^."h"106  [  °f  fruit.' 

The  term  abundance  means  an  overflowing  supply.  Plenty  satisfies  or  fills.  As  that,  how- 
ever, which  fills  suffices  as  much  as  that  which  overflows,  the  terms  are  sometimes  employed 
promiscuously  to  represent  the  same  idea;  as,  a  plentiful  crop,  for,  an  abundant  crop.  But  this 
use  is  confined  to  familiar  expressions;  as,  a  plentiful  harvest,  but,  abundant  cause  for  gratitude. 
(See  Crabb's  English  Synonyms,  page  671.) 

Example  2. — We  hope  that  the  present  -    ,  .      ,,  ^  t  relations  may  continue. 

Both  words  denote  that  good-will  which  all  should  bear,  one  to  another;  but  amicable  implies 
rather  a  freedom  from  discord,  while  friendly  means,  in  addition,  a  positive  feeling  of  regard. 
We  speak  of  an  amicable  settlement  or  adjustment,  but  of  a  friendly  greeting  or  visit.  Our 
choice,  therefore,  of  the  two  words  in  the  above  sentence  should  depend  upon  the  idea  we  wish 
to  convey. 


SO  PRACTICAL   ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

Example  3. — The  speaker  -    j^."^  \  to  the  close  of  his  address. 

These  -words  both  imply  moving  forward  quickly;  but  to  hasten  is  to  proceed  with  order, 
in,  while  to  hurry  denotes  disorder,  confusion.     If  the  speaker  shortened  the  discourse 
in  a  systematic  way,  keeping  to  his  line  of  thought,  etc.,  we  should  say  hastened;  if  in  a  con 
fused,  irregular  way,  hurried  would  express  it. 

Exercise  103. — In  the  following  sentences  select  the  appropriate  synonym  in 
each  case,  or  where  more  than  one  would  be  proper  to  use  explain  the  meaning 

conveyed  by  each. 

i  courage  ) 
bravery  >-. 
fortitude ) 

t  acknowledge  ) 

2.  I  -j  own  V  that  I  was  wrong. 

(       confess       ) 

3.  Why  do  you  regard  him  with  j    ^J™*   J  ? 

4.  A  deadly  fire  was  directed  against  the  advancing  lines  but  the  men  did  not  |  .  w*Te^   | 
for  an  instant. 

5.  There  seems  to  be  no  -j   *  jffPrprif.p  [  between  the  two  cases. 

6.  There  is  great  j    varietv   f  °^  °Pm'oa  regarding  the  matter. 

i    design    ) 
purpose  >■  to  discuss  the  question, 
intention  ) 

8.  The  association  \  ^on™ S  \  at  8  °'clock- 

9.  He  looks  forward  to  the  result  with  a  feeling  of  j  ^^ence  [  ' 

10.  The  officer  was  obliged  to  use  -J  v;0ience  f  m  making  the  arrest. 

11.  We  enjoyed  the  ■<  rustjc  r  scenery  and  the  j        .  .    V  manners  of  the  people. 

12.  History  furnishes  us  with  many  j  fn^^iigg  [  °f  patriotism. 

13.  The  writer  -j  Co°°JjJJ2s  f  latitude  with  longitude. 

14.  Can  you  -j  -,ie  ^  ,  I  on  the  accuracy  of  his  statement? 

f      l'pf  11CP(]       ) 

15.  The  witness  -j  declined  \  to  answer  the  question. 

16.  The  public  were  -j  ^barred  [  of  the  right  to  enter  the  grounds. 

Exercise  104. — Distinguish  between  the  following: 

1.  Error,  mistake,  and  blunder.  6.     Defect,  and  fault. 

2.  Enough,  and  sufficient.  7.     Contented,  and  satisfied. 

3.  Want,  need,  and  lack.  8.     Penitence,  repentance,  and  remorse. 

4.  Praise,  commendation,  and  applause.  9.     Character,  and  reputation. 

5.  Deface,  disfigure,  and  deform.  10.     Idle,  lazy,  and  indolent. 


EFFECTIVE    WORDS.  81 


LESSOR   39. 


Effective  Words. 

296.  Illustration.  —  The  following  graphic  extract  from  a  letter  of  an 
American  writer  is  presented  as  an  illustration  of  a  simple  and  attractive  style 
in  which  one  of  the  chief  elements  of  force  and  vividness  consists  in  the  effective- 
ness of  single  words,  many  of  which  are  exceedingly  apt,  the  best,  perhaps,  that 
could  be  used. 

Exercise  105. — 1.  In  the  following  extract  substitute  words  of  your  own 
choosing  for  those  in  italics,  and  note  the  effect  of  the  change;  also  reproduce  in 
your  own  way  the  thought  of  some  of  the  sentences  or  paragraphs,  and  compare 
with  the  original: 

"  The  Columbia  is  one  of  the  most  beautiful  rivers  in  the  world.  Perhaps  one  of  the  things 
that  makes  it  seem  so  is  the  fact  that  so  few  people  know  it  to  be  the  case.  Before  many  years, 
most  likely,  its  water?  will  be  churned  by  the  swift  paddles  of  excursion  steamers,  villages  and 
factories  and  saw  mills  and  smelters  will  pop  into  existence  along  its  banks,  its  magnificent 
forests  will  be  swept  away  and  the  Columbia  will  become  as  well  known  as  the  Rhine  and  the 
Hudson.  I  allude  to  that  part  of  the  river  that  flows  through  British  territory,  for  the  lower 
reaches  of  the  stream  are  familiar  enough  by  this  time.  Bursting  out  of  the  earth  as  a  full 
river,  and  navigable  within  a  few  rods  of  its  source,  it  takes  an  impetuous  way  to  the  north- 
ward, flowing  between  the  Rockies  and  the  Selkirks,  then,  turning  sharply  south,  between  the 
Selkirks  and  the  Gold  range,  it  descends  into  our  country,  foams  through  the  Dalles,  then 
turns  westward  and  rolls  in  state  to  the  sea. 

The  steamers  that  ply  up  stream  from  Golden  and  down  from  Revelstoke  do  not  promise 
much  to  the  eye,  but  they  are  more  comfortable  than  they  look,  and  so  long  as  you  have  a 
clean  berth  with  plenty  of  cover  at  night,  a  lamp  to  read  by  and  enough  to  eat,  you  are  doing 
well.  While  the  propulsive  power  is  a  large,  old  fashioned  wheel  at  the  stern,  that  throws  a 
cloud  of  spray  behind  it  and  that  is  rimmed  with  rainbows  in  the  morning,  the  pace  is  not  much 
behind  that  of  our  side  wheel  boats. 

Though  apprised  by  the  trembling  of  the  timbers  that  the  steamer  was  under  way,  for  the 
captain  starts  as  soon  as  there  is  light  enough,  either  of  dawn  or  moon,  to  see  the  way  clear,  as 
no  gleam  c&me  through  the  window  I  did  not  turn  out  until  it  was  manifestly  day.  Then, 
going  on  deck,  I  found  that  the  boat  was  near  the  upper  of  the  two  expansions  known  as  the 
Arrow  lakes,  in  water  as  smooth  as  a  mill  pond  and  that  reflected  the  landscape  like  a  mirror. 
Fancy  the  Hudson,  with  the  Catskills  pressed  to  the  edge  of  the  water,  \\ Mi  gli?npses  of  snow 
peaks  over  the  tops  of  the  nearer  mountains,  with  occasional  valleys  opening  a  magnificent 
perspective  of  Alps,  with  a  huge  forest  clothing  the  hills  to  timber  line,  with  stony  caps  and  crags 
jutting  into  the  flood,  with  little  beaches  where  a  boat  could  be  drawn  up,  but  with  never  a, 
house  or  hut  or  tent,  and  you  have  the  Columbia." 

The  morning  had  dawned  cold  and  crisp  and  clear,  and  as  the  sun  peered  over  the  Selkirks 
the  rosy  light  on  the  glaciers  paled  to  silver  and  the  russet  mists  grew  pink,  then  white,  then 
vanished  altogether.  Inaccessible  wastes  of  rock  and  snow  loomed  on  the  western  side,  and  on 
the  east  a  bare  mountain  rose  from  the  river's  edge  in  one  immense  slant  to  a  beetling  peak 
higher  than  Mount  Washington  and  splashed  with  snow  about  the  top.  Two  or  three  sharp 
twists  among  an  archipelago  of  sand  spits  and  islands  were  necessary  in  keeping  to  the  channel, 
and  in  some  places  the  way  was  so  narrow  that  the  need  of  going  through  by  daylight  was 
obvious. 


82  PRACTICAL   ENGLISH   GUAM  MAR. 

2.  Select  some  of  the  most  effective  words  in  the  following  sentence: 
"Those  who  visited  the  Columbian  Exposition  carried  away  with  them  vivid  memories  of 

minarets  and  spires  piercing  the  heavens;  of  vast  bubbles  of  glass  aud  iron  swinging  in  air;  of 
acres  of  floor  crowded  with  wonders  of  mechanism;  splendors  of  art,  and  displays  of  the  genius 
and  energy  of  man  in  every  conceivable  field  of  effort. 

3.  In  the  following  narrative: 

a.  Note  the  easy,  natural  style  of  expression,  the  short  sentences,  and  the  small 
number  of  long  words. 

b.  Eead  the  selection  once  or  twice  and  try  to  fix  the  circumstances  (not  the 
words)  in  the  memory.  The  following  day  write  in  your  own  words  as  accurate 
an  account  of  the  incident  as  you  can.  Lay  it  aside  till  the  next  day  and  then 
after  reviewing  it  and  improving  it  as  far  as  possible,  compare  with  the  original. 

"  It  was  a  great  festive  day  in  Vienna.  Crowds  of  gayly  dressed  people  were  thronging  to 
one  of  the  main  parks  of  the  city.  The  rich  and  poor,  high  and  low,  good  and  bad,  all 
mingling  together,  were  intent  on  enjoying  the  great  festival.  At  this  time  also,  many  who 
had  been  unfortunate  —  cripples,  beggars  and  blind  people  —  took  occasion  to  better  their  con 
dition  by  appealing  to  the  charities  of  those  who  had  been  more  favored.  Among  others  of 
this  class  was  an  old  crippled  soldier,  who  walked  slowly  along,  carrying  under  his  arm  an  old 
violin.  He  took  his  place  under  a  large  oak  tree  where  the  crowds  of  people  would  have  to 
pass,  hoping  to  gain  a  little  help  by  the  music  which  he  might  make,  or  the  sympathy  he  might 
excite.  He  presented  a  forlorn  looking  picture  which  reminded  one  that  the  saying,  '  Young 
soldier,  old  beggar,'  had  in  his  case  been  true  He  was  accompanied  by  his  dog,  which  was 
almost  as  emaciated  as  himself.  He  had  taught  him  to  hold  an  old  hat  between  his  teeth  to 
catch  what  any  one  might  wish  to  give. 

The  old  man  began  to  play,  and  eagerly  watched  the  crowd  to  see  if  some  one  would  not 
drop  into  the  hat  a  piece  of  money,  but  no  one  seemed  to  notice  him.  Still  he  kept  on,  till  it 
was  nearly  sunset.  He  became  very  tired.  His  hand  was  no  longer  able  to  hold  the  violin. 
There  was  a  stately  gentleman  standing  behind  the  old  tree,  unnoticed  by  the  old  man,  who 
had  been  listening  attentively  to  the  music.  He  now  came  out  and  asked  the  beggar  to  let  him 
take  the  violin.  He  examined  it  closely,  found  it  to  be  a  fairly  good  one,  and  began  to  tune  it. 
Under  his  skillful  fingers  its  tones  became  smooth  and  clear.  The  old  man  was  filled  with 
amazement,  and  thought  he  heard  angelic  voices  singing. 

Crowds  began  to  gather  around,  spellbound  by  the  wonderful  music.  The  stranger  told  the 
old  man  to  take  the  hat.  Money  began  to  pour  in.  The  old  man  emptied  the  hat  into  a  sack, 
and  again  it  was  filled.  The  sun  sank  in  the  west;  the  evening  shades  began  to  gather;  the 
atmosphere  became  damp;  and  still  the  crowd  stood,  watching  the  strange  gentleman  and  list- 
ening to  the  sweet  music.  Suddenly  he  struck  up  the  national  hymn  of  'Austria.'  Hundreds 
of  voices  joined  in  the  song.  He  then  laid  the  violin  in  the  palsied  hand  of  the  beggar,  lifted 
his  hat,  and  disappeared  as  suddenly  as  he  had  come. 

The  crowd  began  to  ask,  'Who  is  he?'  but  the  old  man  only  said,  'I  know  not,  but  God 
sent  him.'  A  man  stepped  from  the  crowd  and  said:  '  He  is  the  great  violinist,  Boucher,  and 
now,  in  honor  of  him  and  because  of  our  neglect,  let  us  take  another  collection.'  He  took  the 
hat,  and  immediately  the  people  began  to  give;  some  gold;  some  silver;  others  copper,  as  each 
had  been  moved  by  the  music  or  the  kind-hearted  act  of  the  great  violinist. 

There  were  two  happy  men  in  Vienna  that  night;  the  beggar,  because  of  his  wealth,  and 
Boucher,  because  he  had  shown  his  love  for  his  fellow-man." — Incident  in  the  life  of  Boucher, 
the  great  violinist. 


THE    PARAGRAPH.  83 


LESSOR"  40. 


The  Paragraph. 

207.  A  paragraph  may  consist  of  but  one  sentence,  but  it  is  usually  a  group 
of  sentences  relating  to  the  same  topic  and  marked  by  beginning  the  first  word 
on  a  new  line  a  little  to  the  right  of  the  marginal  space.  The  separation  of 
topics  into  paragraphs  enables  the  reader  to  grasp  the  thoughts  presented  easily, 
and  makes  reference  to  any  given  part  of  the  writing  convenient.  For  example, 
the  following  letter  can  be  much  more  readily  comprehended  and  referred  tc 
when  arranged  in  the  form  of  No.  2 : 

1.  Dear  Sir, — We  have  just  purchased  the  20,000  acres  of  pine  and  hemlock  timber  land 
owned  by  L.  E.  Lyle  &  Son,  of  Cumberland,  with  all  mills  and  machinery  complete,  which 
places  us  at  the  very  head  of  the  lumber  industry  in  the  state  of  Pennsylvania.  You  have 
always  favored  us  with  a  fair  share  of  your  patronage,  but  we  now  intend  to  make  it  to  your 
interest  to  purchase  ail  your  goods  in  our  line  from  us,  as  you  will  see  by  our  enclosed  price 
list  which  allows  15  per  cent  discount  from  our  cash  list  of  the  20th  ult.  You  are  probably 
aware  that  we  have  recently  placed  new  machinery  in  many  of  our  mills,  and  can  now  offer 
you  the  finest  quality  of  cut  shingles  and  lumber  at  the  price  which  is  generatly  asked  for 
inferior  grades  of  sawed  stock.  We  are  also  making  a  drive  on  hard  wood  timbers  for  large 
buildings,  and  can  furnish  them  in  all  sizes  at  prices  lower  than  ever  before.  We  would  be 
pleased  to  have  you  call  and  examine  our  works,  and,  should  you  want  any  special  stock,  we 
will  try  to  obtain  it  for  you.     Awaiting  further  favors,  we  remain, 

Yours  respectfully, 

2.  Dear  Sir, — We  have  just  purchased  the  20,000  acres  of  pine  and  hemlock  timber  land 
owned  by  L.  E.  Lyle  &  Son,  of  Cumberland,  with  all  mills  and  machinery  complete,  which 
places  us  at  the  very  head  of  the  lumber  industry  in  the  state  of  Pennsylvania. 

You  have  always  favored  us  with  a  fair  share  of  your  patronage,  but  we  now  intend  to  make 
it  to  your  interest  to  purchase  all  your  goods  in  our  line  from  us,  as  you  will  see  by  our  enclosed 
price  list  which  allows  15  per  cent  discount  from  our  cash  list  of  the  20th  ult. 

You  are  probably  aware  that  we  have  recently  placed  new  machinery  in  many  of  our  mills, 
and  can  now  offer  you  the  finest  quality  of  cut  shingles  and  lumber  at  the  price  which  is  gen- 
erally asked  for  inferior  grades  of  sawed  stock.  We  are  also  making  a  drive  on  hard  wood 
timbers  for  large  buildings,  and  can  furnish  them  in  all  sizes  at  prices  lower  than  ever  before. 

We  would  be  pleased  to  have  you  call  and  examine  our  works,  and,  should  you  want  any 

special  stock,  we  will  try  to  obtain  it  for  you. 

Awaiting  further  favors,  we  remain, 

Yours  respectfully, 

Kxercise  106. — Paragraph  the  following  letters: 

1 .  To  Our  Patrons, — We  would  respectfully  call  your  attention  to  our  largely  increased 
facilities  for  turning  out  a  superior  quality  of  drop  forgings  and  castings.  We  have  just  com- 
pleted erecting  a  large  trip  hammer  of  the  very  latest  design,  also  the  manufacture  of  a  com- 
plete set  of  dies  for  the  forgings  usually  used  in  the  manufacture  of  agricultural  implements. 
We  have  also  secured  the  services  of  Mr.  Alex.  Mclnnis,  lately  an  employee  of  the  Carnegie 
Steel  Co.,  of  Pittsburg,  as  foreman  of  our  Forge  Department.  We  have  this  day  completed 
arrangements  whereby  we  control  the  entire  output  of  the  Toby  Valley  Furnace  Co.,  thus 
securing  the  best  pig  iron  on  the  market  to  day.  Hoping  to  receive  a  continuance  of  your 
favors,  we  remain,  etc. 


S4  PRACTICAL    KNiiLISH    GRAMMAR. 

2.  Bear  Sir, — I  regret  very  much  having  to  inform  you  that  I  cannot  ship  order  for  goods 
which  you  placed  with  me  on  the  15th  inst.  and  which  was  to  be  shipped  by  May  20.  Owing 
to  the  dull  times  of  a  few  months  ago  I  was  obliged  to  cut  down  my  help  to  a  very  few  men. 
The  discharged  men  sought  employment  elsewhere,  and  those  who  were  unable  to  find  work 
have  left  the  place,  so  it  has  beeu  nearly  impossible  to  procure  skilled  workmen.  I  am  getting 
my  mill  in  running  order  again  as  fast  as  it  is  possible,  and  will  be  able  to  ship  your  order 
within  thirty  days  of  the  time  before  promised.  I  would  like  to  have  you  advise  me  as  to 
your  order,  and  if  you  wish  to  leave  it  I  will,  owing  to  the  delay,  be  pleased  to  extend  the 
regular  terms  of  credit  thirty  days. 

Yours  respectfully, 

298.  Expansion. — As  an  aid  to  clear  writing,  when  what  is  to  be  presented 
contains  many  particulars  which  it  is  important  to  arrange  and  express  in  the 
most  effective  manner,  the  plan  is  suggested  of  first  making  an  outline  of  the 
points  to  be  covered,  to  be  expanded  afterwards  as  may  be  desired. 

Example  1. — Bear  Sir, — Letter  received. 

Reply  would  say  collections  slow  for  some  months.  Held  note  due  16th.  Relied  on  pay- 
ment.    Postponed  writing.     Hoped  to  remit.     Note  returned  protested. 

Business,  our  line,  depressed.  Obliged  to  ask  for  time.  Expect  to  remit  fifteen  days. 
Sooner  if  possible.  Yours  truly, 

Expansion. — The  above  outline  might  be  expanded  as  follows: 

Bear  Sir, — Your  letter  of  the  25th  inst.  was  duly  received. 

In  reply  would  say  that  collections  have  been  very  slow  with  us  for  some  months  back. 
We  held  a  note  tailing  due  on  the  16th  inst.,  relying  on  the  payment  of  which  we  postponed 
writing  you  in  hopes  that  we  would  be  able  to  make  a  remittance  in  full  of  account  on  that 
day,  but  the  note  has  been  returned  to  us  protested. 

In  view  of  the  continued  depression  in  our  line  of  business  we  are  obliged  to  ask  for  an 
extension  of  the  term  of  credit  on  our  account.  We  now  expect  to  be  able  to  remit  in  at  least 
fifteen  days,  and  will  make  every  effort  to  do  so  before  that  time. 

We  are,  Yours  truly, 

Example  2. — Bear  Sir, — We  request  hold  order  fall  goods  till  5th.  Our  Mr.  Green  can 
call. 

Believe  it  to  your  advantage.  Our  groceries  purest,  highest  grade.  Prices  below  inferior 
goods  elsewhere. 

Special  inducements  in  spices.     Also  teas  and  coffees.     Prices  lower  than  last  year's. 

Appreciate  past  favors.     Hope  for  continuance. 

Yours  respectfully, 

Expansion. — Bear  Sir, — We  earnestly  request  you  to  hold  your  order  for  fall  goods,  if 
possible,  until  our  agent,  Mr.  Green,  can  call  upon  you,  which  will  be  about  May  5th,  and 
show  you  what  we  are  offering. 

We  believe  it  will  be  to  your  advantage,  as  our  groceries  are  of  the  highest  grade  of  excel- 
lence and  purity,  and  we  are  now  offering  them  at  less  than  inferior  goods  are  sold  for  by 
other  firms. 

We  have  bought  the  entire  production  of  the  large  spice  mills  of  Craig  &  Sons,  and  can  offer 
some  special  inducements  in  that  line.  Our  agent  will  also  show  you  samples  of  the  finest 
teas  and  coffees  we  have  ever  handled,  which  we  are  able  to  sell  at  even  lower  rates  than  our 
moderate  prices  of  last  year. 

Appreciating  your  favors  of  the  past,  and  trusting  that  we  may  merit  a  continuance  of  them, 
we  are,  Yours  respectfully, 


PARAPHRASING.  85 

Exercise  107. — 1.  Make  an  outline  of  the  main  points  in  the  following 
letter: 

Dear  Sir,— Your  favor  of  the  4th  inst.  received,  and  in  reply  would  say  it  was  not  my  inten- 
tion to  neglect  answering  your  former  communication.  I  have  been  unable  to  make  collections" 
as  anticipated,  and  have  been  putting  off  writing  to  you,  expecting  I  would  be  able  to  remit 
before  this. 

The  failure  of  Jones  &  Co.,  of  Boston,  Mass.,  has  further  embarrassed  me,  and  I  am  com- 
pelled to  ask  for  an  extension  of  ten  days  on  my  account.  I  can  say  for  a  certainty  that  I  will 
be  able  in  that  time  to  pay  my  account  in  full. 

Trusting  this  explanation  will  prove  satisfactory,  I  remain, 

Yours  truly, 

2.     Construct  a  letter  from  the  following  outline: 

Dear  Sir,— Sincerely  regret  to  inform.  Furnace  has  become  burnt  and  defective.  Work 
delayed.  May  not  complete  order  for  three  weeks.  Expect  to  advise  definitely  when  we  hear 
again  from  you. 

Shall  we  send  iron  already  wrought,  according  to  directions?    Nearly  two-thirds  of  order. 

Please  advise  particularly  as  to  filling  order.  If  possible  to  accommodate  shall  be  glad  to 
have  opportunity. 

Trusting  unavoidable  delay  no  serious  inconvenience.  That  explanation  may  prove  satis- 
factory, we  are,  Yours  truly, 


LESSOR  41. 


Paraphrasing. 

299.  A  paraphrase  is  a  statement  in  one's  own  language  of  the  thought 
contained  in  a  statement  made  by  some  one  else. 

300.  Paraphrasing  is  excellent  practice  in  language,  as  it  teaches  one  to 
observe  more  closely  than  he  would  otherwise  do  the  strength  and  excellence  of 
the  passage  he  tries  to  reproduce.  To  paraphrase  well  one  should  read  the 
passage  not  so  much  to  get  the  meaning  of  individual  words  in  it  as  to  get  the 
thought  expressed  by  the  whole. 

Note. — We  should  not  try  to  paraphrase  by  simply  substituting  different  words  here  and 
there,  but  by  changing  the  construction  and  choosing  a  style  of  expression  original  with  our- 
selves. Of  course,  we  may  often  find  it  impossible  to  improve  upon,  or  even  equal  the  passage 
we  try  to  paraphrase,  especially  to  be  as  brief  and  simple,  but  that  should  not  discourage  us 
from  trying.  We  must  remember  that  the  one  who  expresses  a  thought  first  has  the  great  i  si 
choice  of  style  and  language  at  his  disposal. 

Example  1. — "It  is  true  that  but  few  people  can  read  an  article  in  a  newspaper  in  a  style 
which  engages  the  attention  of  their  hearers." 

If  we  should  try  to  paraphrase  this  sentence  in  the  way  in  which  the  first  line  of  the  note 
above  suggests  we  should  not,  and  should  look  into  our  dictionaries  for  the  meanings  most 
appropriate  to  the  words  used  in  the  example,  the  result  would  probably  be  some  such  stupid 
production  as  the  following: 


PRACTICAL    ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

Paraphrase  I.— It  is  conformable  to  fact  that  only  not  many  persons  are  able  to  utter  aloud 
a  discourse  in  a  public  print  that  circulates  news  in  a  manner  which  attracts  the  consideration 
of  their  auditors. 

If  we  tried  to  paraphrase  it  as  suggested  in  the  second  line  of  the  note  we  might  get  it  some- 
thing like  this: 

Paraphrase  II. — It  cannot  be  denied  that  the  ability  to  read  a  newspaper  article  in  a  way 
that  interests  their  hearers  is  possessed  by  but  few  people. 

Can  you  paraphrase  it  in  another  way?     Try.     Commence  with  the  word  that. 

Example  2. — "A  true  man  while  away  from  his  own  country  is  peculiarly  careful  to  bear 
himself  in  a  manner  worthy  of  a  citizen  of  the  commonwealth  which  he  represents." 

Pakaphra.se. — The  peculiar  care  which  a  foreigner  takes  to  worthily  represent  his  native 
commonwealth  shows  whether  or  not  he  is  a  true  man. 

Paraphrase  differently. 

Example  3. — "  Illegible  writing  is  considered  by  some  people  one  of  the  marks  of  a  superior 
mind." 

Paraphrase. — Some  persons  think  that  one  of  the  indications  of  mental  superiority  is  the 
ability  to  write  a  hand  that  cannot  be  read. 

Give  another  paraphrase. 

Exercise  108. — Paraphrase  the  following: 

1.  It  is  a  far  better  thing  to  find  other  great  people  than  to  become  great  yourself. 

2.  We  think  ourselves  obliged  on  this  occasion  to  testify  that  your  charities  have  been 
most  faithfully  applied  to  the  purpose  for  which  they  were  intended. 

3.  Those  who  fail  to  get  an  education  when  they  can  will  wish  to  do  so  when  they  cannot. 

4.  It  cannot  be  too  strongly  asserted,  and  it  can  hardly  be  too  often  repeated  in  the  discus- 
sion of  this  subject,  that  no  dictionary  can  teach  the  proper  way  of  speaking  English. 

5.  Gentlemen, — We  regret  to  say  that  your  order  of  the  16th  inst.  for  30  roller-top  desks 
and  100  dozen  dining  room  chairs  cannot  be  filled  by  May  1st  as  agreed. 

We  have  been  delayed  in  our  business  by  a  two  weeks'  strike  of  the  men  in  the  finishing 
department,  consequently  we  could  fill  no  orders  in  that  time.  We  have  now  resumed  work 
and  can  fill  your  order  by  the  15th  of  May.     Please  advise  us  in  the  matter. 

We  trust  that  the  delay  will  cause  you  no  serious  inconvenience,  and  assure  you  that  we  will 
endeavor  to  please  you  should  you  now  advise  shipment. 

Awaiting  your  favor,  we  are,  Yours  respectfully, 

6.  Dear  Sir, — In  anticipation  of  a  heavy  freight  traffic  this  coming  season  we  have  built 
two  new  steamers.  These,  in  addition  to  the  one  built  last  year,  and  the  three  the  year  before, 
give  us  the  credit  of  having  the  finest  transportation  line  on  the  lake. 

These  steamers  will  be  run  with  the  utmost  regularity  possible,  and  at  such  times  as  will 
best  accommodate  our  patrons.     We  will  send  you  schedule  of  trips  in  a  few  days. 

We  especially  solicit  shipments  of  fruit,  live-stock  and  produce,  as  our  fast  boats  will  give 
quick  delivery  to  cities  on  Lake  Ontario.  All  freight  will  receive  the  most  careful  handling 
and  attention,  and  everything  will  be  done  that  we  may  deserve  your  future  patronage. 

Yours  respectfully, 

7.  Gentlemen, — You  are  aware  that  our  bills  have  heretofore  been  settled  promptly,  and  our 
intentions  were  equally  good  in  this  case,  but,  as  you  know,  on  Jan.  1st  we  purchased  the 
entire  stock  of  Mills  Bros.,  the  business  to  be  carried  on  jointly  with  our  own.  We  did  not 
have  the  ready  cash  to  pay  for  this  large  stock,  but  trusted  to  our  collections,  on  goods  already 
sold,  to  cover  the  note  which  we  gave  them. 


PUNCTUATION.  87 

Owing  to  the  hard  times  our  collections  have  been  very  small  and  those  of  our  Western 
house  have  been  even  smaller,  so  that  all  of  our  ready  cash  has  been  banked  to  meet  this  note, 
which  has  caused  us  great  anxiety.  We  hoped,  from  day  to  day,  that  matters  would  brighten 
so  that  we  could  see  our  way  clear  to  spare  the  $3000.00  which  your  bill  calls  for,  but  we  have 
been  unable  to  do  so,  and  now  make  you  the  following  proposition:  That  we  send  you  our 
note,  with  interest,  from  the  time  your  bdl  became  due. 

Hoping  you  will  appreciate  the  difficulties  with  which  we  have  had  to  contend,  and  return 
a  favorable  answer,  wTe  remain,  Yours  truly, 

8.  Gentlemen, — Knowing  that  your  extensive  business  must  require  a  large  amount  of 
advertising,  we  desire  to  call  your  attention  to  the  advantages  the  Daily  Courier  is  offering 
business  firms. 

We  have  a  large  and  constantly  increasing  subscription,  which  gives  a  circulation  of  great 
value  to  the  advertiser.  Our  paper  is  also  placed  in  many  public  reading  rooms,  thus  increasing 
its  value  as  an  advertising  medium.  We  have  every  facility  for  doing  the  best  work  in  this 
line.  Our  rates  are  reasonable,  and  we  make  special  terms  to  parties  contracting  by  the  year. 
As  we  have  room  for  only  a  limited  number  of  advertisements,  we  insert  only  those  of  reliable 
firms. 

Hoping  you  will  give  this  favorable  consideration,  we  are, 

Respectfully  yours, 


LESSON   42. 


Punctuation. 

301.  Punctuation  is  the  art  of  pointing  written  or  printed  compositions. 
Its  chief  office  is  to  show  more  clearly  the  meaning  intended. 

It  has  become  a  recognized  principle  that  punctuation  is  as  much  a  matter  of 
taste  and  judgment  as  of  rigid  rule;  and  while  certain  rules  are  positive,  and  to 
be  followed  absolutely,  much  is  to  be  left  to  the  discretion  of  the  author. 

The  fashion  changes  in  punctuation  as  in  everything  else.  The  tendency  of 
the  present  day  is  to  free  or  open  punctuation,  which  is  characterized  by  the 
avoidance  of  all  pointing  not  clearly  required  by  the  construction.  In  some  cases, 
as  in  certain  legal  papers,  title  pages,  etc.,  punctuation  is  wholly  omitted. 

The  principal  marks  used  in  punctuation  are  the  following: 

Comma ,     Interrogation ? 

Semicolon ;     Exclamation ! 

Colon -    :     Parenthesis () 

Period -  - . Dash — 

Quota tii hi  marks "  " 

302.  The  Comma. —  Commas  arc  properly  used  to  present  to  the  eye  the 

proper  grammatical  construction  of  the  sentence.  They  are  used  for  the  separa- 
tion of  clauses,  to  mark  parentheses,  and  to  separate  words  where  several  are  used 
in  the  same  construction,  or  wherever  they  help  to  show  the  exact  meaning  of 
the  writer. 


SS  PRACTICAL    ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

Rule  1. —  Words  used  in  a  series  in  the  same  construction  are  generally  set  off 
by  commas:  as, — 

"  Industry,  honesty,  frugality,  and  temperance  are  among  the  cardinal  virtues." 

Exception. — The.  comma  should  be   omitted  when  the  conjunctions  are 
'expressed:  as, — 

"  Let  us  try  to  enrich  and  purify  and  ennoble  our  minds." 

Note.  —Two  or  more  words  are  of  the  same  construction  when  they  have  a  common  depend- 
ence on  some  other  term. 

Rule  II. — Pairs  of  words  of  the  same  part  of  speech  are  separated  from  other 
pairs  in  the  same  series  by  commas:  as, — 

"The  dying  man  cares  not  for  pomp  or  luxury,  palace  or  estate,  silver  or  gold." 

Rule  III. — Words  or  phrases  contrasted  with  each  other,  are  separated  by 
commas:  as, — 

"  We  live  in  deeds,  not  years;  in  thoughts,  not  breaths;  in  feelings,  not  in  figures  on  a  dial." 

Rule  IV. — Words  and  phrases  in  apposition,  also  words  and  phrases  used 
independently,  are  set  off  by  commas:  as, — 

"Newton,  the  great  mathematician,  was  very  modest." 

"  We,  the  people  of  the  State  of  New  York,  in  convention  assembled,"  etc. 

"His  father  being  dead,  the  prince  ascended  the  throne." 

"  Now,  sir,  what  is  your  conclusion?  " 

Rule  V. — Parenthetical  words,  phrases,  and  clauses  should  be  separated  by 
commas  from  the  rest  of  the  sentence:  as, — 
"  Napoleon  was,  unquestionably,  a  man  of  courage." 
"  Generally  speaking,  an  indolent  person  is  unhappy." 
"  Prudence,  as  well  as  courage,  is  necessary  to  overcome  obstacles." 
"The  Romans,  who  conquered  Greece,  were  brave  men." 

Note. — If  the  relative  clause  is  restrictive,  no  comma  should  be  used:  as,  "The  man  who  is 
honest  will  be  trusted." 

Rule  VI. — A  comma  is  used  before  or,  when  it  introduces  an  equivalent,  an 
explanatory  word,  or  a  phrase  defining  the  author's  meaning:  as, — 
"  The  skull,  or  cranium,  protects  the  brain." 

Rule  VII. — In  compound  sentences,  when  the  verb  is  expressed  only  in  the 
first  clause,  and  understood  in  all  the  others,  a  comma  takes  its  place:  as, — 
"Reading  makes  a  full  man;  conversation,  a  ready  man;  writing,  an  exact  man." 

Rule  VIII. — When  a  transposition  occurs,  so  that  an  adjunct  or  a  clause, 
which  would  naturally  follow  a  verb,  is  introduced  before  it,  a  comma  is  generally 
required:  as, — 

"  To  obtain  an  education,  he  was  willing  to  make  sacrifices." 

Rule  IX. —  Quotations,  passages  resembling  them  in  form,  and  observations 
in  general,  when  short  and  not  formally  introduced,  are  set  off  by  commas:  as,— 
"  It  was  Bion  that  first  said,  '  Know  thyself.'  " 
"  '  The  book  of  Nature,'  said  he,  '  is  open  before  thee.'  " 
"I  say  unto  all,  Watch." 


PUNCTUATION.  89 

Rule  X. — Independent  clauses,  when  short  and  closely  connected,  should  be 
separated  by  commas:  as, — 

"Science  tunnels  mountains,  it  spans  continents,  it  bridges  seas,  and  it  weighs  the  stars." 

Rule  XI. — A  word  emphatically  repeated  is  generally  set  off  by  a  comma:  as, — 
"Happy,  happy,  happy  child." 

Rule  XII.  —  The  principal  parts  of  the  heading,  address,  conclusion,  and 
superscription  of  a  letter  should  be  separated  by  commas:  as, — 

Boston,  Mass.,  July  11,  1894., 
Mr.  J.  H.  Williams, 

190  James  St., 

Philadelphia,  Pa. 
Dear  Sir, — 

Tours  respectfully, 

Robert  Blair. 

303.  The  semicolon  is  used  to  separate  parts  of  a  sentence  less  closely  con- 
nected than  those  separated  by  a  comma. 

Rule  I.  —  Members  of  sentences  subdivided  by  commas,  unless  very  closely 
connected,  should  be  separated  by  semicolons:  as, — 

"Mirth  should  be  the  embroidery  of  conversation,  not  the  web;  and  wit  the  ornament  of 
the  mind,  not  the  furniture." 

Rule  II. —  Clauses  and  expressions  in  a  series,  having  a  common  dependence 
upon  another  clause,  are  separated  from  each  other  by  a  semicolon,  and  from  the 
common  clause  by  a  comma  and  dash:  as, — 

"If  we  think  of  glory  in  the  field;  of  wisdom  in  the  cabinet;  of  the  purest  patriotism;  of 
the  highest  integrity,  public  and  private;  of  morals  without  a  stain;  of  religious  feelings 
without  intolerance  and  without  extravagance,— the  august  figure  of  Washington  presents 
itself  as  the  personation  of  all  these  ideals." 

Note. — Where  the  comma  can  serve  the  purpose  formerly  effected  by  the  semicolon,  the 
present  tendency  is  to  give  the  preference  to  the  comma. 

Rule  III. — A  semicolon  should  be  placed  between  the  members  of  compound 
sentences,  unless  the  connection  is  very  close:  as, — 

"You  may  quit  the  field  of  business,  though  not  the  field  of  danger;  and  though  you  cannot 
be  safe,  you  may  cease  to  be  ridiculous." 

Notes— I.  The  connective  is  sometimes  omitted:  as,  "The  miser  grows  rich  by  seeming 
poor;  the  extravagant  man  grows  poor  by  seeming  rich." 

II.— When  the  clauses  are  short  and  the  connection  is  close,  a  comma  may  be  employed: 
as,  "  Simple  men  admire  the  learned,  ignorant  men  despise  them." 

Rule  IY. — A  semicolon  should  be  placed  before  an  enumeration  of  particu- 
lars, when  the  names  of  the  objects  are  given  without  any  formal  introductory 
words  or  accompanying  description:  as, — 

"To  Greece  we  are  indebted  for  the  three  principal  orders  of  architecture;  the  Doric,  the 
Ionian,  and  the  Corinthian." 

304.  The  colon  is  the  intermediate  point  between  the  Semicolon  and  the 
Period. 


90  PKAlTICAL    ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

llule  I. — When  a  clause  is  followed  by  an  additional  remark  or  illustration, 
especially  if  no  connective  is  used,  the  colon  is  employed:  as, — 

"A  void  evil  doers:  in  such  society  an  honest  man  may  become  ashamed  of  himself."  "  Yes, 
sir:  it  has  been  attended  to." 

Rule  II. — A  colon  is  used  before  a  direct  quotation:  as, — 

"  In  his  last  moments  he  uttered  these  words:  '  I  fall  a  sacrifice  to  sloth  and  luxury.'  ' 

Notes. —I.  When  the  quotation  is  long,  or  begins  a  new  paragraph,  the  colon  may  be 
followed  by  a  dash:  as,  "  The  cloth  having  been  removed,  the  president  rose  and  said: — 

'  Ladies  and  gentlemen,  we  have  assembled,'  "  etc. 

II. — If  the  quoted  passage  is  introduced  by  that,  or  if  it  is  short  and  introduced  in  the 
middle  of  a  sentence,  a  colon  is  not  admissible  before  it:  as,  "  Bion's  favorite  maxim,  '  Know 
thyself,'  is  worth  whole  pages  of  good  advice." 

Rule  III. — The  connectives,  to  wit,  namely,  as,  introducing  an  example,  are 

generally  preceded  by  the  colon:  as, — 

There  are  three  kinds  of  street  cars:  namely,  horse,  cable,  and  electric. 

305.  The  Period  denotes  the  greatest  degree  of  separation. 

Rule  I. —  Put  a  period  after  every  sentence  that  is  not  interrogative  or 
exclamatory. 

"  Worth  makes  the  man,  the  want  of  it  the  fellow."     "Be  true  to  thyself." 

Rule  II.  —  A  period  is  used  after  every  abbreviated  word  not  written  or 
printed  with  the  apostrophe;  and  where  two  letters  are  used  for  two  separate 
words,  each  letter  should  have  a  period  after  it. 

Acct.     bu.     Dec.     mdse.     cont'd    i.  e.     C.  O.  D.     s.  d. 

Rule  III.  —  A  period  is  used  after  a  title  or  heading,  and  after  the  date, 
address,  and  signature  of  a  letter;  also,  at  the  end  of  the  address  on  an  envelope 

or  label:  as, — 

New  Complete  Bookkeeping.  Chapter  IV.  New  York,  Jan.  4,  1893.  Marshall  Field, 
Chicago,  111.     Robert  Rutter. 

Rule  IV. — The  period  is  used  to  set  off  decimal  numbers  from  whole  num- 
bers; also,  before  figures,  to  show  that  they  constitute  a  decimal  and  not  a  whole 
number:  as, — 

375.05,  $264.15,  .045  mile. 

306.  The  interrogation  point  is  placed  after  every  direct  question:  as, — 
Who  got  the  position?    Where  does  he  live?    What  is  the  price  of  wheat? 

Notes  —I.  When  each  of  the  interrogative  parts  of  a  sentence  requires  a  distinct  answer, 
the  interrogation  point  is  placed  after  each  of  the  parts:  as,  What  is  civilization?  Where  is  it? 
Where  does  it  commence?     Where  does  it  end? 

II  —When  only  one  answer  is  needed,  or  where  the  question  is  not  complete  before  the  end 
is  reached,  the  comma  or  semicolon  is  used  within  the  sentence,  and  the  interrogation  point  at 
the  end-  as,  Did  he  win,  or  lose?     Was  he  their  bookkeeper,  their  cashier,  or  their  manager? 

307.  The  Exclamation.— Rule  I.— An  exclamation  point  must  be  placed 
after  every  exclamatory  sentence,  member,  clause,  and  expression:  as, — 

"How  it  rains!  "    ( Exclamatory  sentence.) 


PUNCTUATION.  91 

"  The  clock  is  striking  midnight;  how  solemn  and  suggestive  the  sound!"  (Exclamatory 
member.) 

"  Unhappy  man  that  I  am,  what  have  I  done!  "    (Exclamatory  clause.) 
"  How  sad!  "    (Exclamatory  expression.) 

Rule  II. — An  exclamation  point  should  be  put  after  every  interjection  except 
0:  as, — 

Oh!     Ah!     Hark!     Ha!    Alas!     Pshaw! 

Note. —  Observe  the  difference  between  0  and  oh.  The  former  is  used  only  before  the 
nasaes  of  objects  addressed  or  invoked,  is  not  immediately  followed  by  an  exclamation  point, 
and  must  always  be  a  capital;  the  latter  is  used  by  itself  to  denote  different  emotions  of  the 
mind,  has  tyn  acclamation  point  after  it,  and  begins  with  a  small  letter  except  at  the  commence- 
ment of  a  sentence. 

308.  The  dash  is  used  to  mark  some  kind  of  break  or  interruption. 

Rule  I. — A  dash  is  used  to  show  a  sudden  change  in  the  construction  or  senti- 
ment: as, — 

"  The  heroes  of  the  Revolution  —  how  do  we  regard  their  memory?"  "  She  was  beautiful  — 
in  her  own  opinion." 

Rule  II. — A  dash  is  used  to  mark  a  rhetorical  pause  or  a  suspension  of  the 
voice  for  effect:  as, — 

"  Men  will  wrangle  for  religion,  write  for  it,  anything  but  —  live  for  it." 

Rule  III. — A  dash  is  used  to  denote  the  omission  of  letters,  figures,  and 
words:  as, — 

Mr.  B n.     1894-5.     Here  comes . 

Rule  IV. — A  dash  is  sometimes  used  to  mark  the  transition  from  a  succes- 
sion of  particulars  to  some  emphatic  general  expression  which  includes  them  all. 
"  He  was  witty,  learned,  industrious,  plausible,  —  everything  but  honest." 

Note. — The  dash  is  sometimes  used  before  and  after  a  parenthetical  clause.  Formerly  the 
dash  was  used  more  frequently  for  this  purpose  than  at  present,  and  the  tendency  is  to  a  less 
frequent  use  of  it. 

309.  The  parenthesis  is  used  to  enclose  an  explanatory  word  or  phrase  or 
other  matter  not  strictly  belonging  to  the  sentence:  as, — 

The  vapor  of  water  (steam)  upon  cooling  becomes  a  liquid. 
A.  M.  (Artium  Magister)  Master  of  Arts. 
His  manner  of  writing  (i.  e.  his  style)  is  very  pleasing. 

310.  Brackets  are  used  to  enclose  words,  phrases,  and  clauses  explanatory 
of  what  precedes  them;  also  to  correct  an  error  or  to  supply  an  omission:  as, — 

They  [the  electric  cars]  are  very  fine. 
Do  you  know  if  [whether]  he  is  at  home. 
Paris  [Ky  J  Jan.  5,  1895. 

311.  Quotation  marks  are  used  to  indicate  a  passage  taken  from  another 
author,  or  anything  said  by  a  speaker  when  it  is  given  in  his  own  words. 

Rule  I. — A  direct  quotation  should  be  enclosed  by  quotation  marks:  as, — 
"  Trade,  like  a  restive  horse,  is  not  easily  managed." 

Mr.  Jones  arose  and  said:  "I  am  satisfied  that  he  is  an  honest  young  man  and  that  hi* 
accounts  will  be  found  correct." 


PRACTICAL   ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

Rule  II. — When  one  quotation  is  embraced  within  another,  the  contained 
quotation  has  single  marks:  as, — 

'  It  was  what  teachers  call  a  '  hard  day  '  in  school." 

Rule  III. — Titles  of  books,  pictures,  or  newspapers,  etc.,  should  be  quoted: 

.  — 

"  Washington  and  His  Generals."     "The  Youth's  Companion."     "The  Horse  Fair." 

Notes. — I.  Where  the  title  of  the  book,  etc.,  is  well  known,  or  is  abbreviated,  and  also 
where  it  is  used  In  a  tabulated  list,  as  in  catalogues,  advertisements,  etc.,  the  quotation  marks 
are  usually  omitted. 

II.  Sometimes,  as  in  newspapers,  magazines,  etc.,  when  reference  is  made  to  a  periodical, 
the  title  is  printed  in  a  different  style  of  type  from  that  used  for  the  regular  reading  matter: 
as,  "The  reference  to  the  Herald  in  yesterday's  Tribune  was,"  etc. 

312.  Additional  Marks. —  Some  of  the  other  marks  used  in  punctuation 
are  the  apostrophe,  the  hyphen,  and  the  caret. 

313.  The  apostrophe  (')  is  used  to  denote  the  omission  of  a  letter  or  letters 
in  a  word;  also  the  omission  of  the  century  in  dates  when  the  century  is  under- 
stood: as, — 

Don't  for  do  not.    Fve  for  /  have.    '  tis  for  it  is. 
The  winter  of  '94.     Dec.  25,  '94.     1894,  '95,  '96. 

314.  The  hyphen  (-)  is  used  between  compound  words  which  have  not  by 
usage  become  single  words;  also  at  the  end  of  a  line  where  words  are  necessarily 
divided:  as, — 

Vice-president,  mother-in-law,  steam-engine,  ninety-five. 

Notes. — I.  Words  necessarily  divided  at  the  end  of  a  line  should  be  divided  only  at  the 
end  of  a  syllable. 

II. — In  dictionaries  and  some  spelling-books  the  hyphen  is  used  between  the  syllables  of 
words  to  aid  in  showing  the  proper  pronunciation. 

315.  The  caret  ( /\ )  is  used  to  indicate  that  one  or  more  letters  or  words  have 
been  omitted  and  afterwards  interlined:  as, — 


m 

to 

Gramar. 

He  is  bound  succeed 

h 

h 

Use  of  Capitals. 

316.     A  capital  letter  should  begin  — 

1.  The  first  word  of  every  sentence, 

2.  All  proper  nouns,  and  adjectives  derived  from  them. 

3.  Titles  of  office,  honor,  and  respect. 

4.  Every  line  of  poetry. 

5.  The  name  of  a  thing  personified. 

6.  Every  quotation  forming  a  sentence,  and  every  direct  quotation  introduced 
into  a  sentence. 

7.  The  initial  letter  in  all  words  denoting  the  Deity  should  be  a  capital. 

8.  Capital  letters  should  be  used  for  the  pronoun  I  and  the  interjection  0. 


PUNCTUATION.  93 

9.  Begin  with  a  capital  every  noun,  adjective,  and  verb,  in  the  titles  of  books 
and  headings  of  chapters. 

10.  The  names  of  the  months  of  the  year  and  the  days  of  the  week  should 
begin  with  capitals. 

Note. — Use  a  small  letter  when  in  any  doubt  as  to  the  propriety  of  using  a  capital. 

Exercise  109. — Write  all  the  words  of  the  following  list  requiring  capitals  in 
one  line,  and  all  the  others  in  another  line: 

ohio,  state,  Chicago,  france,  bostonian,  country,  england,  boston,  milton,  river,  girl,  mary, 
hudson,  william,  britain,  miltonic,  city,  englishman,  messiah,  platonic,  america,  deity,  bible, 
book,  plato,  christian,  broadway,  jehovah,  christ,  british,  easter,  europe,  man,  scriptures,  god. 

Exercise  110. — Give  reasons  for  the  capitals  in  the  following  words: 

Long  Island,  Good  Friday,  Mount  Vernon,  Suspension  Bridge,  New  York  City,  Harpers 

Ferry,  Cape  May,  Bunker  Hill,  Red  River,  Lake  Erie,  General  Jackson,  White  Mountains, 

River  Thames.  Astor  House,  Steamer  Drew,  North  Pole. 

Exercise  111. — Re-write,  punctuate,  and  use  necessary  capitals: 

1.  in  what  state  is  mount  Washington 

2.  Baltimore  is  an  american  City 

3.  The  territory  of  alaska  was  bought  of  russia 

4.  Address  your  letter  to  j  p  jones  new  brunswick  n  j 

5.  send  me  a  copy  of  pickwick  bound  in  Calf 

6.  i  intend  to  go  south  in  march 

7.  Monday  tuesday  and  friday  are  Days  of  the  week 

8.  composition  Sets  the  sentence  off  Clearly  from  others  and  Views  it  as  distinct  from  Them 

9.  The  Ideal  history  of  english  literature  like  the  Great  american  novel  is  always  to  Be 
written 

10.  in  the  dial  of  nov  16  appeared  an  Extended  Review  of  the  life  and  Inventions  of  thomas 
Alva  edison  By  w  k  1  dickson  And  antonia  Dickson 

11.  dr  bryant  in  his  discussion  of  the  american  scheme  of  State  education  says 

12.  Teaching  the  Children  of  n  y  City  is  a  serious  business  says  Stephen  H  olin  in  the 
educational  Review 

13.  the  Chicago  Board  of  education  will  transfer  its  Offices  from  the  City  hall  to  the  schiller 
Theatre  building 

14.  The  united  States  is  but  little  behind  Great  britain  as  a  Coal  producing  Nation 

15.  a  b  dr  lb  1  1  d  p  o  eng  aa  p  m  oz  i  e  viz  ill  dol  per  cent  col  hon  m  c 

16.  an  Eminent  Writer  says  talent  knows  what  to  do  Tact  how  to  do  it 

17.  The  Mandates  of  god  must  be  obeyed 

18.  o  Balmy  Spring  o  day  of  dear  Delights 

19.  The  Ways  of  providence  are  Concealed  from  man 

20.  emporia  kansas  July  4th  1887 

21.  dr  Williams  Cincinnati  ohio 

22.  h  d  gunn  m  d  Chicago  ill 

23.  The  ohio  river  the  rocky  mountains  the  atlantic  ocean  lake  michigan  and  niagara  falls 
are  names  familiar  to  every  american  citizen. 

24.  The  north  the  south  the  east  and  the  west  are  four  grand  divisions  of  the  u  s 

25.  hail  holy  light  offspring  of  heavens  first  born 

26.  sing  heavenly  muse 

27.  He  Dare  not  Touch  a  hair  of  cataline 

28.  Awake  Arise  or  be  forever  fallen 

29.  Today  if  You  Hear  His  voice  harden  not  your  Hearts. 


94 


PRACTICAL   ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 


30.  Punctuate  the  following  in  two  different  ways  in  order  to  bring  out  a  difference  in 
meaning:  "  I  said  he  is  a  scoundrel  it  is  true  and  I  am  sorry  for  it." 

31.  the  Weather  bureau  of  the  United  states  is  now  under  the  control  of  the  department  of 
agriculture 

S3.  The  large  fleet  of  vessels  engaged  in  Cod -fishing  on  the  Grand  banks  of  nova  Scotia  is 
chiefly  from  Massachusetts 

83.  the  rhine  and  The  danube  are  connected  by  a  Canal  thus  forming  aa  unbroken  water- 
way from  the  north  Sea  to  the  Black  sea 

34.  we  heartily  Welcome  supt  Albert  marble  now  of  omaha  lately  of  Worcester  mass  to 
the  west 

35.  We  are  glad  to  learn  that  the  executive  Committee  of  the  kansas  State  teachers  associ- 
ation has  secured  judge  Andrew  S  draper  president  of  the  university  of  Illinois  to  deliver  a 
Lecture  at  the  december  meeting. 

Exercise  112. — Abbreviate  the  following: 


1 

Connecticut, 

16. 

California, 

31. 

county, 

46. 

Numeral  (number), 

2. 

captain, 

17. 

colonel, 

32. 

credit, 

47. 

Pennsylvania, 

3. 

Kansas, 

18. 

Delaware 

33. 

East, 

48. 

saint, 

4. 

Massachusetts, 

19. 

England, 

34. 

north, 

49. 

street, 

5. 

Michigan, 

20. 

esquire, 

35. 

south, 

50. 

Vermont, 

6. 

Minnesota, 

SI. 

Friday, 

36. 

Doctor, 

51. 

Virginia, 

7. 

Mississippi, 

22. 

General, 

37. 

debtor, 

52. 

January, 

8. 

Nebraska, 

23. 

George, 

38. 

Georgia, 

53. 

February, 

9. 

Oregon, 

24. 

governor, 

39. 

Junior, 

54. 

March, 

10. 

Professor, 

25. 

Honorable, 

40. 

Kentucky, 

55. 

April, 

11. 

Tennessee, 

26. 

Illinois, 

41. 

Louisiana, 

56. 

August, 

12. 

Thursday, 

27. 

Indiana, 

42. 

Maine, 

57. 

September, 

13. 

Alabama, 

•28. 

Wednesday, 

43. 

Maryland, 

58. 

October, 

14. 

answer, 

29. 

Wisconsin, 

44. 

Mister, 

69. 

November, 

15. 

Arkansas, 

30, 

Company, 

45. 

Master, 

60. 

December, 

INDEX 


Abstract  nour   10. 

Active  voice,  37. 

Adverbs,  definition,  61;  comparison,  61;  how 
divided,  61 ;  of  manner,  61 ;  of  place,  61 ;  of  time, 
61 ;  of  degree,  61 ;  of  cause,  61 ;  of  affirmation,  61 ; 
of  negation,  61 ;  rules  for,  63. 

Adverbial  elements,  4;  pbrase,  65. 

Adjective,  definition,  29;  elements,  4;  limit- 
ing, 29 ;  numeral,  30 ;  qualifying,  30 ;  forms  of,  30 
comparison,  30 ;  how  compared,  30 ;  irregular,  31 
rules  for,  32,  33,  34 ;  some  current  misuses  of,  34 
phrase,  65. 

Agreement  of  verbs,  49;  rules  for,  49. 

Analysis,  7. 

Antecedent  of  relative  pronouns,  24. 

Apostrophe,  92. 

Appropriate  use  of  preposition,  69. 

Articles,  the,  30. 

As,  23. 

As  and  so,  73. 

Attribute,  the,  5. 

Attributive  verb,  37. 

Auxiliary  verbs,  45. 

Brackets,  91. 
Brevity,  76. 
But  that,  73. 

Capitals,  use  of,  92. 

Cardinal  numerals,  30. 

Caret,  92. 

Case,  definition,  16;  subjective,  16;  possessive, 

16 ;  objective,  16 ;  independent,  16. 
Clause,  definition,  2. 
Clearness,  75. 
Climax,  77. 

Co-ordinate  conjunctions,  71. 
Collective  noun,  10. 
Comma,  the,  87 ;  rules  for,  88. 
Common  noun,  10. 
Comparison,  definition,  30;  of  adjectives,  30; 

degrees  of,  30 ;  of  adverbs,  61. 
Compound,  subject,  4;  sentence,  6;  phrase,  6; 

words,  12;  personal  pronouns,  19;  relatives,  24; 

participles,  55. 
Complex,  sentence,  16;  phrase,  6. 
Connecting  elements,  5. 
Conjugation,  44. 
Conjunction,  definition,  70;  how  divided,  71; 

co-ordinate,  71 ;  subordinate,  71 ;  repetition  and 

omission,  76. 
Contrast,  77. 


Copula,  the,  5. 
Correlatives,  71. 

Dash,  the,  91 ;  rules  for,  91. 
Declarative  sentence,  5. 

Declension,  definition,  17;    of  nouns,   17;   of 
personal  pronouns,  19 ;  of  relative  pronouns,  23. 
Defective  verbs,  53. 

Elements,  modifying,  14;  adjective,  4;  adverb- 
ial, 4 ;  objective,  4 ;  connecting,  5 ;  independent,  5. 
Exclamatory  sentence,  5. 
Exclamation  point,  90;  rules  for,  90. 
Expansion,  84. 

Feminine  gender,  14. 

Force,  76. 

Future  tense,  41 ;  perfect,  42. 

Gender,  definition,  14;  masculine,  14;  femi- 
nine, 14 ;  neuter,  15 ;  forms,  15 ;  how  distinguished, 
15 ;  of  pronouns,  15. 

Gerund,  the,  55. 

Harmony,  77. 
Hyphen,  92. 

Imperative  sentence,  5. 

Imperative  mode,  39. 

Impersonal  verb,  53. 

Independent  element,  5. 

Indicative  mode,  38;  compared  with  subjunc- 
tive, 140. 

Infinitive  phrase,  7;  mode,  39. 

Interrogative,  sentence,  5;  pronoun,  26. 

Intransitive  verb,  37,  38. 

Interrogation  point,  90. 

Interjections,  definition,  74;  primitive,  74; 
derivative,  74. 

Language,  definition,  1;  object  of,  75. 

Lest,  73. 

Limiting  adjectives,  29. 

Marks,  punctuation,  87;  additional,  92. 
Mode,  definition,  38;  indicative,  38;  potential, 
38;  imperative,  39;  infinitive,  39;  subjunctive,  40- 
Modifications,  of  nouns  and  pronouns,  11;  of 

vi 'i-l  is,  37.     . 
Modifying  elements,  4. 

Neuter  gender,  15. 

Noun,  definition,  10;  proper,  10;  common,  10; 
collective,  10;  abstract,  Hi;  verbal  10;  modifica- 
tion of,  11  ;  gender  forms  of,  14. 


% 


I  NM'.X. 


Number  11,  singular,  11^  plurals  11;  of  the 
verb,  43. 

Numeral  adjectives,  30, 

Object,  retained,  53,  and  preposition,  65,  of 

language,  75. 
Objective  elements,  4;  case,  16,  use  of,  17. 

Ordiual  numerals,  30. 

Paragraph,  S3. 

Paragraphing,  76. 

Paraphrase,  85. 

Parenthesis,  91. 

Parts  of  speech,  9. 

Participial  phrase,  7. 

Participle,  definition,  54;  present,  55;  past,  55; 
compound,  55;  uses  of,  55;  in  construction,  56; 
rule,  "Hi;  suggestions,  56. 

Passive,  voice,  37;  form  of  verb  in,  45. 

Past,  tense,  41;  perfect,  42;  participle,  55. 

Past  participle,  55. 

Past  perfect  tense,  42. 

Perfect  tense,  42. 

Period,  90;  rules  for,  90. 

Person,  definition,  14;  first,  14;  second,  14; 
third,  14 ;  of  the  verb,  42. 

Personal  pronoun,  19;  simple,  19;  compound, 
19 ;  forms,  19 ;  declension,  19 ;  rules  for,  20 ;  am- 
biguous use  of,  21 ;  position  of,  21. 

Phrase,  definition,  3;  position  of,  3;  complex, 
6;  compound,  6;  prepositional,  6;  infinitive,  7; 
participial,  7. 

Plural  nouns,  formation  of,  11;  irregular,  12. 

Possessive  case,  16;  rules  for,  16. 

Potential  mode,  38. 

Predicate,  the,  1;  of  what  it  consists,  3;  simple, 
4 ;  compound,  4. 

Prepositional  phrase,  6;  modifiers,  68. 

Preposition,  definition,  65;  and  object,  65; 
omission  of,  68;  unnecessary  use  of,  68;  appro- 
priate use  of,  69. 

Present  tense,  41 ;  perfect,  42. 

Present  participle,  55. 

Progressive  form  of  verb.  45. 

Pronoun,  definition,  19;  genders,  15;  personal, 
19 ;  forms  of,  19 ;  declension,  19 ;  relative,  23 ;  gen- 
der, 23 :  declension,  23 ;  interrogative,  26 ;  adject- 
ive, 26. 

Preposition,  definition,  2;  principal,  6;  sub- 
ordinate, 6. 

Proper  use  of  words,  76. 

Punctuation,  87. 


Quotation  marks,  91 ,  rules  for,  91. 

Redundant  verbs,  53. 

Regular  verbs,  42. 

Relative  pronoun,  definition,  23;  simple,  23; 
gender,  23;  declension,  23;  compound,  24;  rule, 
24 ;  position  of,  25 ;  antecedent  of,  24. 

Semicolon,  the,  89;  rules  for,  89. 

Sentence,  definition,  1;  principal  elements,  3; 
declarative,  5;  interrogative,  5;  imperative,  5; 
exclamatory,  5;  simple,  6;  complex,  6;  com- 
pound, 6. 

Shall,  59. 

Should,  59. 

Signs  of  the  tenses,  42. 

Simple,  subject,  3;  sentence,  5;  personal  pro- 
noun, 19. 

Singular  number,  11. 

Subordinate  conjunctions,  71. 

Subjunctive  mode,  40 

Subjective  case,  16. 

Subordinate  proposition,  6. 

Subject,  1;  what  it  may  be,  3;  simple,  3;  com- 
pound, 4. 

Synonym,  definition,  79, 

Tense,  definition,  41;  present,  41;  past,  41; 
future,  41 ;  present  perfect,  42 ;  past  perfect,  42 , 
future  perfect,  42;  in  all  the  modes,  42;  signs 
of,  42. 

Than,  72. 

That,  23. 

Transitive  verb,  37„ 

Unity  of  thought,  76. 

Verb,  definition,  36;  classes,  37;  transitive,  37; 
intransitive,  37 ;  attributive,  37 ;  modiflcations.of, 
37;  regular,  42;  irregular,  43;  conjugation,  44; 
auxiliary,  45;  agreement  of,  49;  redundant,  de- 
fective, and  impersonal,  53;  similar  in  form,  58; 
omission  of,  60 ;  substitution,  60 ;  different  forms 
of,  60. 

Verbal  noun,  10. 

Voice,  definition,  37;  active,  37;  passive,  37o 

What,  23,  26,  73. 
Which,  23,  26. 
Who,  23,  26. 
Will,  59. 
Would,  59. 

Words,  compound,  12;  proper  use  of5  76; 
effective,  81. 


WILLIAMS   &   ROGERS  SERIES 


BUSINESS  AND  SOCIAL 


COEKESPOKDENCE. 


A  TEXT-BOOI 


.v 


FOR    USE    IN" 


ALL   SCHOOLS   IX   "WHICH   THE   SUBJECT   IS 

TAUGHT. 


REVISED, 


NEWYOKK   •:•  CINCINNATI    •:•  CHICAGO 

AMERICAN   BOOK   COMPANY 


Entered  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1889, 

By  Williams  &  Rogers, 

In  the  Office  of  the  Librarian  of  Congress,  at  Washing-ton,  D.  C 

w.  p.  9 


PREFACE. 


The  text-book  on  correspondence  of  which  this  is  a  revision,  treated  the  subject 
somewhat  briefly,  and  was  devoted  entirely  to  business  letter  writing.  The 
tavorable  reception  accorded  that  work,  the  increasing  interest  manifested  in  the 
subject  as  a  branch  of  study,  and  the  apparent  necessity  for  a  more  comprehensive 
text-book,  so  constructed  as  to  be  desirable  for  class  use,  have  led  to  the  prepara- 
tion of  this  work. 

The  advantages  claimed  for  it  are:  new  and  valuable  information  and  instruc- 
tion in  business  letter  writing  are  presented;  the  subject  of  social  correspondence 
has  been  given  proper  attention;  the  arrangement  of  the  material,  and  the 
number,  variety  and  character  of  the  exercises,  make  it  more  convenient  and 
valuable  for  the  teacher's  use. 

Some  of  the  subjects  treated  are  not  to  be  found  in  any  other  work  of  this  kind, 
and  the  statements  made  regarding  the  various  phases  of  correspondence  have 
received  the  indorsement  of  experienced  correspondents,  whose  judgment  has 
been  sought  with  a  view  to  obtaining  the  latest  and  most  practical  ideas  and 
customs. 


COKTEOTS. 


Diagram  of  parts  of  a  letter 4 

Introduction 5 

Correspondence,      business,     definitions, 
classification,  material 7 

Parts  of  a  letter. 

Heading * 9 

Address. -  H 

Salutation 14 

Body ■ 17 

Complimentary  closing 18 

Signature - 20 

Completion  of  letter. 

Folding 22 

Inserting - 22 

Sealing 23 

Addressing 23 

Stamping 24 

Miscellaneous. 

Postal  Cards 26 

Correcting  exercises.. -  27 

Special  Points. 

Errors  in  letters 29 

Imperfect  addresses 29 

Spelling - -  29 

Penmanship  _ - 30 

Mixing  business  and  friendship 30 

Verbiage 30 

Hasty  replies -  30 

Copying  letters 30 


Style  of  expression 30 

Modifying  words 31 

Courtesy 32 

Choice  of  words 32 

Business  Letters. 

Ordering  goods 33 

With  inclosures 36 

Requesting  special  favors 42 

Of  introduction 44 

Of  indorsement -  44 

Of  recommendation - 45 

Of  application . . . 47 

Dunning 49 

Of  censure 49 

Telegraphing 51 

Socl\l  Correspondence. 

Materials - 58 

Heading 58 

Address. 58 

Salutation  and  closing 58 

Body  of  letter - 59 

Social  Letters. 

Of  affection. 59 

Of  friendship - 59 

Of  congratulation 63 

Of  introduction 64 

Of  condolence - 65 

Postal  Information 68 

General  Index 73 


DIAGRAM   OF  THE  PARTS  OF  A  LETTER. 


Heading-. 


Address. 

Salutation.  Body  of  letter. 


n  Body  of  letter. 

— 

"03 


be 

a 


- 

PL, 


Body  of  letter. 


Complimentary  closing. 

Signature. 


rNTBODTIOTIOK 


It  is  generally  conceded  that  the  subject  of  business  correspondence  should 
receive  a  greater  share  of  attention  in  the  schools  of  our  country  than  is  usually 
devoted  to  it,  a  necessity  resulting  from  the  requirements  demanded  of  the  young 
men  and  women  called  upon  to  fill  positions  in  the  business  world.  It  is  also 
desirable  that  young  people  should  acquire  a  pleasing  style  in  their  social  corre- 
spondence, hence  both  parts  of  the  subject  are  treated  in  these  pages. 

Few  young  people  appreciate  the  value  of  the  ability  to  write  creditable  business 
and  social  letters.  It  is  the  opinion  of  those  whose  opportunities  for  forming  judg- 
ment have  been  most  favorable,  that  a  man's  habits,  qualifications,  and  qualities  in 
general  as  a  business  man,  may  be  estimated  with  fair  accuracy  upon  no  further 
knowledge  of  him  than  may  be  obtained  from  familiarity  with  his  business  letters; 
and  it*  may  be  as  truthfully  asserted  that  his  social  correspondence  furnishes  an 
index  to  his  bent  of  mind  and  general  character.  Since  a  large  portion  of  the  busi- 
ness of  the  world,  and  much  of  the  friendships  of  life,  are  maintained  only  through 
the  medium  of  letters,  it  would  appear  that  it  can  be  no  more  important  to  cultivate 
the  ability  to  transact  business  and  to  preserve  friendships  in  personal  life  than  to 
cultivate  such  powers  in  correspondence;  and  the  fact  that  a  man's  correspondence 
is  in  a  measure  shaped  by  his  habits,  previously  formed,  and  that,  on  the  other  hand, 
his  habits  are  controlled  and  improved  by  cultivating  care  in  his  correspondence, 
adds  force  to  this  opinion. 

Although  the  subject  of  correspondence  is  broad  and  comprehensive,  there  is  no 
good  reason  for  hesitation  in  making  it  a  part  of  the  course  of  study  in  our  schools. 
Experience  has  demonstrated  that  as  great  a  degree  of  success  may  attend  rightly 
directed  effort  to  instruct  in  this  subject  as  in  any  other;  and  it  is  believed  that  no 
other  branch  of  study  will  be  productive  of  more  real,  practical  benefit  to  the 
student,  in  proportion  to  the  amount  of  effort  expended  upon  it,  than  the  study  of 
correspondence. 

While  it  may  be  true  that  the  great  diversity  in  business  necessitates  widely  differ- 
ent lines  of  correspondence,  it  is  also  true  that  in  all  correspondence  certain  funda- 
mental principles  hold  good;  and  if  a  general  foundation  can  be  laid,  the  student 
will  much  more  readily  work  into  any  particular  line  of  correspondence  that  may 
be  required  of  him  than  if  he  had  not  received  any  instruction;  and  it  is  unreason- 
able to  suppose  that,  because  of  this  diversity  in  business,  the  student  may  not  be 
instructed  in  correspondence  as  successfully  as  he  is  now  instructed  in  book-keeping. 

It  is  the  aim  of  tin's  work,  not  only  to  furnish  information  for  the  student  in  letter 
writing,  but  to  suggest  to  the  teacher  a  method  of  presenting  the  subject,  which, 
of  course,  may  be  altered  or  modi  lied  to  suit  the  needs  of  his  pupils. 

After  tin'  student  has  been  led  to  understand  the  importance  of  the  subject,  ha3 

been  instructcl   regarding  the  materials  to  be  used,  and  has  received  such  other 

ral  information  as  he  may  need  in  a  preliminary  way,  the  form,  and  parts  of  >» 


6  INTRODUCTION. 

letter  are  explained  and  illustrated,  so  that  his  subsequent  work  upon  letters  will 
confirm  him  in  correct  habits  of  form  at  the  same  time  that  he  is  learning  the  art  of 

i  xpression.  When  he  is  ready  to  take  up  let  in-  writing  proper,  it  is  suggested  that 
he  be  given  at  the  outset,  if  possible,  some  subject  with  which  the  teacher  may  find 
him  familiar.  This  plan  is  more  likely  to  secure  the  student's  interest  at  the  start 
than  if  he  were  assigned  work  without  reference  to  his  previous  knowledge  of  the 
subject.  'Thus  it  may  be  well  to  have  some  students  commence  with  letters  of 
friendship,  others  with  letters  ordering  goods,  others  again  with  letters  of  introduc- 
tion, etc.  And  this  will  he  found  to  be  perfectly  practicable  with  the  exercises 
given  in  this  work,  as  each  set  is  complete  in  itself,  and  it  is  not  claimed  that  the 
order  in  which  they  appear  will  be  the  best  to  follow  with  all  classes. 

lla\  ing  assigned  the  exercise,  let  the  teacher  draw  from  the  student,  by  question- 
ing, such  information  us  he  should  possess  concerning  it  before  attempting  to  write 
the  desired  letter,  supplying  his  lack  of  information  when  necessary.  He  may  be 
shown  specimen  letters,  similar  in  character  to  the  one  assigned  him,  either  before 
or  after  his  own  attempt,  as  may  be  thought  best,  and  when  his  work  is  completed 
and  criticised  he  may  be  required  to  correct  or  rewrite  it  until  he  has  brought  his 
letter  to  the  highest  point  of  excellence  in  his  power.  This  letter  may  be  followed 
by  others  similar  to  it,  upon  exercises  given  in  the  work  or  supplied  by  the  teacher, 
until  the  student  becomes  familiar  with  letters  of  this  class,  after  which  he  may  be 
assigned  work  upon  the  next  class  selected. 

The  manner  of  arranging  the  various  parts  of  a  letter  is  secondary,  and  yet  certain 
forms  of  arrangement  are  accepted  by  common  consent  as  reasonable,  orderly,  and 
in  good  taste,  and  are  approved  by  the  best  correspondents;  and  since  these  accepted 
forms  can  be  learned  as  easily  and  employed  as  readily  as  others  not  so  approved,  it 
seems  entirely  proper  that  students  should  be  taught  to  use  them. 

The  matter  of  first  importance  in  a  letter  is  the  expression  of  the  proper  ideas  in 
proper  language  —  in  other  words,  what  to  say  and  how  to  say  it  appropriately  and 
effectively.  To  secure  good  results  in  this  direction,  various  suggestions,  comments, 
and  illustrations  are  supplied  with  the  exercises  given  in  the  work. 


foRRESPONDENCE. 


DEFINITIONS. 


Correspondence  is  the  interchange  of  thought  by  means  of  letters. 

A  Letter  is  a  written  or  printed  communication  addressed  to  some  person  or 
persons. 

For  convenience,  letters  are  here  divided  into  two  general  classes :  1.  Private, 
or  Personal ;  2.   Public,  or  Open. 

Private  Letters  are  those  intended  only  for  the  persons  to  whom  they  are 
addressed;  and  they"  are  divided  into  two  classes :  Social  and  Business. 

Social   Letters   are  those  that  grow  out  of  social  and  personal  relations;  as, 
Letters  of  Affection,  of  Congratulation,  of  Sympathy,  of  Introduction,  of  Censure, 
of  Condolence  —  in  fact,  all  letters  not  of  a  business  or  official  character.     Further 
explanation,  and  illustrations  of  the  various  kinds  of  social  letters  will  be  given  iru, 
another  part  of  this  work. 

Business  Letters,  as  the  term  clearly  indicates,  are  such  as  are  written  on 
matters  relating  to  business,  of  whatever  kind.  These  include  that  class  of  letters 
written  by  persons  holding  public  office,  and  which  are  sometimes  called  Official 
Letters.  The  first  part  of  this  work  will  be  devoted  mainly  to  the  discussion  of 
Business  Letters. 

Public  Letters  are  such  as  are  usually  addressed  to  some  particular  person,  but 
intended  for  the  public.  They  relate,  as  a  rule,  to  matters  of  general  interest,  and 
are  given  to  the  public  through  the  medium  of  the  newspaper  and  magazine  press. 
Under  this  head  may  be  placed  the  letters  written  by  newspaper  correspondents, 
which  are  generally  addressed  to  the  editor  of  the  paper,  and  intended  for  publica- 
tion. In  this  class  may  also  be  placed  the  circular  letters  sometimes  issued  by 
business  men  for  advertising,  or  other  purposes,  and,  being  intended  for  general 
distribution  among  their  customers,  partake  more  of  a  public  than  of  a  private  or 
personal  character. 

MATERIALS. 

The  Materials  ordinarily  employed  in  conducting  correspondence  are,  pen,  ink. 
and  paper.  Other  appliances,  such  as  letter-books,  copying -presses,  letter-files,  filing 
cabinets,  etc.,  may  be  used,  and  in  most  business  offices  some  or  all  of  these  are 
used,  together  with  typewriting  machines,  and  other  modern  office  devices. 

pen. —  The  opinions  of  correspondents  regarding  the  proper  size,  elasticity,  and 
fineness  of  a  pen  are  as  various  as  their  styles  of  expression.  It  is  believed,  how- 
ever, that  for  two  reasons  a  pen  of  medium  size,  elasticity,  and  fineness  is  prefer- 

7 


8  rOKKKSPONPKNCK. 

able  to  one  possessing  any  extreme  quality;  first,  because  one  will  become  accus- 
tomed to  its  use  with  loss  efforl  :  and  second,  when  called  upon  to  use  a  pen  with 
which  he  is  not  familiar,  the  change  will  be  less  marked,  and  hence  less  inconven- 
ience will  be  experienced.  Again,  a  very  fine  pointed  pen  should  be  avoided,  on 
account  of  its  liability  to  catch  in  the  paper,  and  a  very  coarse  one,  because  of  the 
heavy  lines  it  leaves,  rendering  the  page  black  and  unsightly.  A  medium  pointed 
pen  is  also  the  besl  to  use  when  the  matter  written  is  to  be  copied  by  the  copying- 
pros.  A  fine  pointed  pen  would  not  distribute  enough  ink  upon  the  paper  to 
produce  a  good,  clear  impression  in  the  letter-book,  except  by  much  shading,  which 
is  not  desirable  in  correspondence;  and  at  the  same  time  the  use  of  a  very  coarse- 
pomted  pen  would  produce  a  heavy  or  blurred  impression  in  the  letter-book. 

Ink. —  Any  ink  of  a  positive,  indelible  color,  that  flows  from  the  pen  readily,  is 
suitable  for  business  correspondence;  but  custom  and  good  taste  have  dictated 
that  black  is  the  most  appropriate  color.  For  business  use,  and  especially  with  a 
gold  pen,  the  commercial  fluids  are  receiving  great  favor.  The  chief  objection  to 
them  is  their  corrosive  properties,  which  arc  such  as  to  destroy,  utterly  and  quickly, 
the  flexibility  of  ordinary  steel  pens,  and  to  materially  lessen  their  durability. 
Fluids  are  objectionable  for  school  purposes,  on  account  of  their  lack  of  decided 
color  when  first  applied,  rendering  the  pupil  unable  to  see  with  distinctness  the 
work  he  is  attempting  to  do.  To  offset  these  objections,  fluids  usually  possess  the 
indispensable  quality  in  a  good  ink  of  extreme  fluidity,  flowing  freely  at  every  touch 
of  the  pen  to  the  paper.  There  can  be  no  objection,  however,  to  using  a  black  ink, 
and  there  is  every  advantage  in  it  over  any  pale  fluid,  providing  the  ink  possesses 
the  quality  of  fluidity  and  is  non-corrosive.  The  presence  of  corrosive  properties  in 
ink  may  be  easily  detected  by  permitting  a  drop  to  dry  upon  the  pen.  If  it  be 
destructive  to  steel,  the  pen  will  be  found  coated  with  rust,  while  if  harmless,  the 
deposit  remaining  upon  the  pen  may  be  easily  removed,  leaving  the  metal  untar- 
nished. 

Paper. —  The  paper  to  be  used  in  correspondence  will  depend  upon  the  purpose 
for  which  it  is  intended ;  and,  generally  speaking,  that  which  would  be  regarded 
proper  for  business  letters  would  not  be  suitable  for  social  correspondence. 

While  letter  papers  are  made  in  various  shapes  and  sizes,  only  a  few  styles  are  in 
common  use.  For  social  correspondence,  what  is  known  as  note  paper  is  now  almost 
universally  used.  This  is  oblong  in  shape,  usually  unruled,  and  is  generally  fur- 
nished in  three  sizes,  viz.:  4  by  G  in.,  called  Billet ;  44-  by  7  in.,  called  Octavo;  and 
o  by  8  in.,  called  Commercial  note;  all  of  which  have  four  pages  to  the  sheet. 

For  business  correspondence,  three  styles  of  paper  are  in  common  use,  viz. :  Com- 

rcial  note,  which  is  about  5  by  8  in.;  Packet  note,  which  is  about  5£  by  8f  in.; 
and  Letter  paper,  which  varies  in  size  from  8  by  10  in.  to  8f  by  11  in.  Paper  for 
business  correspondence  is  made  only  in  half-sheets.  The  Commercial  note  and  the 
Packet  note  are  used  for  short  letters,  and  the  Letter  paper  for  long  ones.  For  pen- 
written  letters  most  business  men  prefer  to  use  ruled  paper,  but  for  type-written 
letters  and  social  correspondence  unruled  paper  is  almost  exclusively  used. 

Note. — Cap  paper  should  never  be  used  for  business  or  social  letters.  If  the  correspondent 
have  no  other,  he  should  cut  the  cap  paper  down  to  letter  or  note  size. 

While  the  quality  of  the  paper  for  business  and  social  correspondence  is  somewhat 
a  matter  of  taste,  it  should  be  of  such  grade  as  is  suited  to  the  purpose  and  the 


PARTS   OF   A    LETTER.  *  # 

occasion.  Good  paper  furnishes  an  incentive  to  good  work,  and  produces  a  favor- 
able impression  upon  the  recipient.  Business  men  recognize  these  facts,  and,  as  a 
consequence,  the  letter  paper  used  in  business  k  generally  of  a  good  quality. 

The  color  of  the  paper  for  social  correspondence  is  also  a  matter  of  taste,  but  good 
usage  favors  white.  For  business  correspondence,  white  is  the  prevailing  color,  any 
other  being  .the  exception.  For  invoices,  checks,  and  some  other  kinds  of  business 
forms,  colored  paper  is  quite  extensively  used. 

EnT  elopes. —  The  envelopes  used  for  business  correspondence  are  oblong  in 
shape,  and  of  various  sizes.  Those  most  commonly  used  are  known  as  !Nos.  6  and 
6^.  The  former  measures  3f  by  6  in.,  and  the  latter,  3f  by  G|  in.  The  No.  9 
envelope,  which  measures  about  4  by  9  in.,  is  much  used  for  official  correspondence, 
legal  documents,  manuscripts,  etc.,  and  is  known  as  the  official  envelope. 

For  social  correspondence,  two  styles  of  envelopes  are  in  general  use.  One,  nearly 
square,  which  contains  the  note  sheet  folded  once,  and  the  other,  oblong  in  shape, 
made  to  contain  the  note  sheet  after  it  has  been  folded  twice,  once  each  from  the 
top  and  bottom.  These  are  from  -§•  to  \  in.  greater  in  width  and  length  than  the 
folded  sheet.  The  square-shaped  envelope  should  not  be  used  for  business  purposes. 
For  social  correspondence,  the  color  and  quality  of  the  envelope  should  harmonize 
with  that  of  the  paper.  For  business  purposes  this  is  not  of  so  much  importance, 
although  for  correspondence  a  good  quality  of  white  envelope  is  generally  used. 


PARTS  OF  A  LETTER. 

For  convenience  and  clearness  in  explaining  the  form  of  a  business  letter,  the 
following  classification  of  the  parts  or  elements  is  presented : 

1. —  Heading  (  Place  and  Date  ). 

2. —  Address. 

3. —  Salutation. 

4. —  Body. 

5. —  Complimentary  Closing. 

6. —  Signature. 

Heading.  —  The  heading  indicates  when  and  where  the  letter  is  written.  It 
usually  contains  the  post-office  directions  of  the  Avriter,  and  the  date  of  the  letter. 
The  heading  should  furnish  the  party  addressed  the  information  he  will  need  in 
directing  his  reply.  Whether  the  county,  street  and  number,  post-office  box,  etc., 
should  be  given  depends  upon  the  circumstances,  and  is  left  to  the  judgment  of  the 
writer.  Generally  speaking,  if  the  writer  reside  in  a  city,  his  post-office  address 
should  contain  the  street  and  number,  city  and  state;  if  in  a  small  place,  it  should 
include  the  name  of  the  post-office,  county  and  state.  When  a  request  is  made  to 
direct  a  reply  m 'care  of  a  third  party  it  is  usually  put  in  the  body  of  the  letter  or 
just  after  the  signature. 

The  heading  is  generally  begun  on  the  first  ruled  line,  which  in  letter  paper  is 
about  two  and  ;i  half  inches,  and  in  note  paper  about  two  inches,  below  the  top  of 
i!i"  sheet;  and  it  may  occupy  one,  two,  or  three  lines,  according  to  the  information 
it  is  designed  to  contain.  The  heading  of  a  business  letter  rarely  occupies  more 
than  one  line,  and  a  part  of  it,  the  place,  is  generally  printed.     The  date  of  a  letter 


10  CORRESPONDENCE. 

consists  of  the  month,  the  day  of  the  month,  and  the  year  in  which  it  is  written, 
the  month  usually  being  in  words,  and  the  day  of  the  month  and  the  year  in  figures; 
as.  April  24,  1889. 

The  arrangemenl  and  position  on  the  lines  of  several  headings  are  shown  in  the 
forms  given  below. 

Form   1   shows  a  one-line  heading,  hegnn  far  enough  from  the  left  margin  to  rill 
the  remaining  spare  to  the  right. 

Form  1. 


^i^z^ny.Jf.M^Z^^^  v-'ff?* 





A  two-line  heading  should  be  used  when  the  matter,  arranged  in  one  line,  woulfl 
extend  more  than  half  way  across  the  sheet.  The  heading  should  never  extend  to 
the  left  of  the  middle  of  the  sheet. 

Form  2  shows  a  two-line  heading,  the  first  line  begun  near  the  middle  of  the 
page,  and  the  second  line  begun  far  enough  from  the  beginning  of  the  first  to  fill 
the  remaining  space  to  the  right. 

Foio[  2. 


Form  3  shows  a  two-line  heading  arranged  similar  to  form  2,  in  which  the  post- 
office  address  occupies  one  line  and  the  date  the  other. 

Forh  3. 


^(asuy,  O^^^^'  O^r  ycSc/, 


/^/rf^. 


PARTS   OF   A   LETTER.  11 

Form  4  shows  the  manner  of  arranging  a  two-line  heading  which  includes  the 
post-office  box,  and  is  similar  to  Form  2. 

Form  -4. 


v(y^  da^r  ^T/rfM 


Punctuation". —  The  heading  of  a  letter  should  be  carefully  punctuated.  Sepa- 
rate the  parts  —  the  street,  the  place,  the  state,  the  county,  the  month,  and  the 
vsar — by  commas.  Put  a  period  after  every  abbreviation  and  at  the  end  of  the 
heading.  If  any  .part  of  the  heading  ends  with  an  abbreviation  it  will  require  a 
period  and  a  comma,  as  shown  above.  The  accompanying  script  forms  should  be 
carefully  studied  and  referred  to  until  any  heading  can  be  correctly  punctuated. 

Remark. — In  submitting  the  various  forms  given  herein,  the  fact  is  recognized  that  an  absolute 
standard  is  not  observed  either  in  the  books  upon  the  subject  or  in  the  practice  of  correspondents, 
and  it  is  therefore  thought  best  to  present  but  few  forms.  Those  given  have  been  selected  because 
they  are  most  generally  used,  and  it  is  believed  that  drill  upon  a  few  standard  forms  will  produce 
better  results  than  practice  upon  a  greater  variety  of  styles. 

The  practice  exercises  for  the  student,  given  herewith,  will  be  of  much  more  value  if  they  be 
carefully  written  with  pen  and  ink,  and  after  being  corrected,  returned  to  student  for  re-writing, 
to  be  preserved  by  him  for  reference.  Better  results  can  also  be  obtained  if  students  all  use  paper 
uniform  in  quality  and  size. 

A 

EXERCISES. 

Write  the  following  headings,  referring  to  the  models,  if  necessary,  for  the  correct 
position,  punctuation,  and  use  of  capitals  : 

l.^Trenton  X  J  dec  9  1885 

2.  June  10  1888  S  C  Charleston 

3.  NebrFremont  1887  4  May 

4.  NY  Livingston  co  Mt  morris 
Jan  2  1886 

5.  Iowa  Rose  hart  co  1884  9  Oct 
v  6.  Box  81  Pa  Sheridan  1  July  1887 


v   7.  1889  may  24  16  Park  place  Cin- 
cinnati 0 

8.  June  8  1887  Kas  13  Oak  St  Topeka 

9.  30  Aug  1885  Ithaca  N  Y  Cornell 
University 

\    10.  Write  a  correct  heading  of  a  let- 
ter from  your  home. 


Address.— The  address  of  a  letter  consists  of  the  name  and  title  of  the  party 
addressed,  and  his  residence,  place  of  business,  or  such  other  place  as  he  may  desig- 
nate for  the  reception  of  his  mail.  The  address  is  written  at  the  beginning  of  busi- 
ness letters,  and  at  the  end  of  social  and  official  letters. 

The  inside  address,  as  this  may  be  termed,  corresponds  to  the  address  on  the 
envelope,  excepting  that  in  the  inside  address  the  city  and  state  are  written  on  the 


12  CORRESPONDENCE. 

same  line,  and  that  Letters  addressed  to  our  person,  in  care  of  another,  have  such 
information  or  direction  placed  only  on  the  envelope.  The  street  and  number  or 
post-office  box  are  often  omitted  in  the  inside  address. 

In  business  letters  the  address  occupies  either  two  or  three  lines,  according  to  the 
particulars  it  is  necessary  bo  give  in  order  to  insure  certainty  as  to  the  party 
addressed. 

The  name  is  the  first  part  of  the  address,  and  politeness,  as  well  as  custom, 
requires  that  some  title  be  added  to  the  name.  The  common  titles  of  courtesy  are 
Miss,  Mrs.,  Mr.,  Esq.,  and  Messrs.  Miss  is  applied  to  an  unmarried  woman,  Mrs. 
to  a  married  woman,  and  Mr.  to  a  man.     Messrs.  is  applied  to  two  or  more  men. 

In  regard  to  the  proper  use  of  the  titles  Mr.  and  Esq.  there  is  a  great  diversity  of 
opinion.  In  ordinary  business  correspondence  they  are  treated  as  synonymous,  the 
latter  being  the  more  common.  In  addressing  a  lawyer  or  a  person  of  distinction 
who  has  no  professional  or  literary  title,  Esq.  should  be  used.  Two  titles  of  courtesy 
should  not  be  joined  to  the  same  name;  as,  Mr.  Hiram  Sibley,  Esq.  Nor  should 
a  title  of  courtesy  usually  be  used  in  connection  with  professional  or  official  titles; 
as,  Mr.  I).  B.  Wilson,  M.  D.,  or  Hon.  Henry  Wilson,  Esq.  One  exception  to  this 
rule  is  where  a  clergyman's  given  name  or  initials  are  unknown  in  which  case  he 
may  bo  addressed  as  Rev.  Mr.  ( ),  giving  only  the  surname. 

The  second  part  of  the  address  comprises  the  post-office  directions  of  the  party 
addressed,  and  occupies  one  or  two  lines.  If  the  post-office  is  in  a  city  it  is  some- 
times necessary  to  include  the  street  and  number  in  the  address,  in  which  case  they 
will  occupy  one  line,  and  the  city  and  state  another. 

The  inside  address  is  often  omitted  in  social  letters,  but  it  should  never  be  omitted 
from  business  letters.  Copies  of  business  letters  are  usually  preserved  in  a  letter- 
book,  stenographer's  note-book,  or  in  some  other  form,  and  without  the  inside 
address  such  copies  would  be  of  little  or  no  value  for  reference.  It  is  also  important 
that  the  full  addresses  be  given  as  a  matter  of  convenience  to  the  writer  in  directing 
the  envelopes,  thus  avoiding  the  liability  of  misdirection  or  enclosing  letters  in  the 
wrong  envelopes. 

The  following  forms  illustrate  the  proper  arrangement  and  position  of  the  inside 
address  : 

Form  1  shows  an  address  occupying  two  lines,  the  name  written  on  the  next  line 
below  the  date  and  commencing  at  the  marginal  line,  which  is  about  one  inch  from 
the  left  side  of  the  sheet,  and  the  remainder  of  the  address  beginning  at  the  para- 
graph line,  which  is  about  two  inches  from  the  left  side  of  the  sheet,  on  the  line 
below  the  name.  See  diagram  of  a  letter  on  page  4.  The  measurements  here  men- 
tioned apply  to  letter  paper,  which  is  usually  about  eight  inches  in  width.  When 
note  paper  is  used  the  spacing  should  be  correspondingly  narrower. 

Form  1. 


VM 


y<^^y^z^^z^Jia^n^  C^-J^zS 


PAKTS    OF   A    LETTER.  13 

Form  2  shows  an  address  occupying  three  lines,  the  first  and  second  being  placed 
as  in  Form  1,  and  the  third  line  beginning  about  one  inch  to  the  right  of  the  para- 
graph line. 

Form  2. 


uf^JLj^oiy. 


Form  3  is  arranged  the  same  as  Form  1,  and  is  placed  after  the  body  of  the  letter 
instead  of  before  it,  which  is  the  proper  position  in  official  and  social  letters. 

Form  3. 


Punctuation. — The  address  should  be  punctuated  as  shown  in  the  above  forms. 
Separate  the  parts  —  the  name,  the  street  and  number,  the  city,  and  the  state  —  by 
commas.  A  comma  should  be  placed  between  the  name  and  title  when  the  title 
follows  the  name.  Put  a  period  after  every  abbreviation  and  at  the  end  of  the 
address. 

EXERCISES. 

Write  the  following  headings  and  addresses,  arranging  and  punctuating  them 
correctly  : 

1/  Lock  Box  94  Ann  Arbor  Mich  Dec  6  1871  Messrs  Willson  &  Rodney  General 
Printers  and  Lithographers  Chicago  111. 

2.  /164  Emmet  Avenue  Brooklyn  N  Y  April  30  1890  Richard  Sherman  Esq  Elm 
Park  Corner  L  St  Washington  D  C. 

3.  360  E  Forty-eighth  St  New  York  May  31  1890  William  Sartin  M  D  Bellevue 
Hospital  City. 

4.  s'  Almont  Lincoln  Co  Mont  Fourth  of  July  1889  Jones  Bros  &  Smith  328  Broad- 
way  New  York. 

5.  Room  1007  Wilder  Block  Rochester  N  Y  Monday  Aug  4  1889  Mr  Howard 
White  Sec  Fidelity  Insurance  Co  14  James  Road  London  Eng. 


14  CORRESPONDENCE. 

Salutation. —  The  salutation  is  the  complimentary  term  used  to  commence  the 
letter,  and  the  choice  of  the  appropriate  word  or  words  to  bo  used  is  governed  by  the 
circumstances  and  the  relations  of  the  writer  to  his  correspondent.  Custom  has  pre- 
scribed certain  forms  which  are  in  general  use;  as,  Sir,  Dear  Sir,  or  My  Dear  Sir, 
when  writing  a  business  letter  to  a  gentleman,  and  Sirs,  Gentlemen,  Dear  Sirs,  or 
Mil  Dear  Sirs,  when  addressing  a  firm. 

Sir  is  appropriate  when  the  writer  is  addressing  a  stranger;  or  it  may  be  used 
consistently  in  a  letter  of  censure  or  rebuke.  The  more  familiar  f orm  Dear  Sir, 
implies  an  acquaintance  or  the  existence  of  previous  business  relations,  while  My 
Dear  Sir  should  not  be  used  unless  intimacy  or  friendship  exists  between  the  parties. 
The  contractions  Dr.  for  Dear,  and  Sr.  for  Sir  should  never  be  used. 

The  term  Gentlemen  is  almost  synonymous  with  Dear  Sirs,  though  not  indicating 
au  equal  degree  of  familiarity,  and  for  this  reason  is  preferred  by  many  corres- 
pondents.    The  term  Gents  should  never  be  used. 

The  position  of  the  salutation  depends  upon  the  number  of  lines  in  the  address. 
It  may  begin  at  the  paragraph  line,  a  short  distance  to  the  right  of  that  line,  or  at 
the  marginal  line. 

Form  1  shows  the  position  of  the  salutation  following  a  two-line  address  and 
begun  about  one  inch  to  the  right  of  the  paragraph  line. 

Form  1. 


Form  2  shows  the  position  of  the  salutation  following  a  three-line  address  and 
begun  at  the  paragraph  line. 

Note. — In  this  form  it  will  be  observed  that  the  salutation  begins  directly  under  the  initial  letter 
of  the  second  line  of  the  address. 

Form  2. 


Ja^^^^u/-  


Form  3  shows  another  position  of  the  salutation  following  a  two-line  address  and 
begun  at  the  marginal  line. 

Note.— This  is  a  common  position  for  the  salutation  on  note  paper,  on  account  of  the  narrowness 
of  the  sheet     Some  authorities  capitalize  only  the  first  word  of  the  salutation. 


parts  of  a  letter.  15 

Form  3. 


cj^h^y^^z^is-    


The  salutation  in  a  business  letter  to  a  married  woman,  or  to  an  elderly  unmarried 
woman,  would  be  Madam,  Dear  Madam,  or  My  Dear  Madam.  Probably  more  uncer- 
tainty has  been  felt  regarding  the  proper  salutation  to  be  used  in  a  letter  to  an 
unmarried  woman  who  is  a  stranger,  than  upon  any  other  point  in  the  arrange- 
ment of  a  business  letter.  If  she  be  a  young  woman,  Madam  would  manifestly  be 
improper,  and  since  there  is  no  other  word  in  the  language  just  suitable  as  a  substi- 
tute, it  is  suggested  that  no  salutation  be  employed.  Write  the  heading  and  address, 
and  proceed  with  the  letter;  as: 


y"/UJ2y 


'■^tn^y- 


** 


Punctuation". — The  salutation  in  a  business  letter  should  be  followed  by  a  comma 
and  a  dash. 

EXERCISES. 

Write  the  following  headings,  addresses,  and  salutations,  arranging  and  punctua- 
ting them  according  to  the  forms  heretofore  given  : 

v  1.     Trenton  N"  J  Dec  9  1885  Mr  William  Wallace  Salt  Lake  City  Utah  84  Maple 
A.ve  Dear  Sir  Your  letter  came  yesterday  and 

2.  Charleston  S  C  June  10  1888  Mo  St  Louis  McCall  Meyers  &  Co  Gentlemen  23 
/ine  St  Enclosed  please  find  invoice 

3.  Fremont  Nebr  May  4  1887  James  J  Carson  Minn  St  Cloud  Dear  Sir  Your 
favor  of  the  10th  inst 

4.  NY  Livingston  co  Mt  morris  Jan  2  1886  Mr  John  B  Halstead  Colo  Denver 
president  of  the  board  of  trade  Sir  can  you  inform  me 

b/~  1889  May  24  Park  Place  Cincinnati  0  Jackson  &  Chambers  Lansing  Mich  62 
Main  St  Gentlemen  our  best  mechanics  are  at  work  upon  your  order 

6.  Juno  8  1887  Kas  13  oak  St  Topeka  Richards  &  Conover  100  e  5th  St  Kansas 
City  Mo  Gentlemen  Please  ship  us  immediately 

7.  Write  the  heading,  address,  and  salutation  of  a  letter  from  yourself  to  your 
Tather,  mother,  or  guardian.  Include  the  name  of  the  school  you  are  attending  in 
the  heading. 

8.  Make  an  exact  copy  of  the  exercises  on  the  next  page. 


16  CORRESPONDENCE. 

yS  -'i/C^ks 


st<VZ/ 


v  $  &■£/•   y^tcJ^/-  C^v^n^t^ 


ynJ07 


T^y^de^^t^y  ■^Tz^/^^wT/^r?/  y^ytJy 


ezsrrt£*d/ 


iy^^^y^SMnzA^^ru  Qy<^c^>aJiin^y 


<C^£tA/-    //^-i^^^^a^in^^^a^ 


7^z4/S<zzz<4<4/- 


'■^/Ty^^r-  -i&£<?^czy  e^yyy^ 


PARTS    OF    A    LETTER.  1? 

Body. — The  Body  of  the  letter  is  that  part  which  contains  the  message  or  the 
information  to  be  communicated,  and  is,  of  course,  the  ]?art  of  first  importance. 

In  this,  as  in  the  other  parts,  good  form  is  desirable,  and  the  penmanship,  spacing, 
paragraphing,  etc.,  should  receive  due  attention;  but  mere  matters  of  form  may  be 
observed  with  the  greatest  precision  and  the  letter  still  be  an  utter  failure. 

The  vital  part  is  the  subject  matter,' —  the  ideas  embodied  in  the  letter  and  the 
manner  in  which  they  are  set  forth  —  and  when  the  right  ideas  are  appropriately 
expressed  and  coupled  with  good  form  the  result  will  be  perfect  letters. 

The  body  of  a  business  letter  should  begin  on  the  same  line  with  the  salutation, 
as  shown  below. 


Job^C^MS-  <^/  -^^  ^^a^u^y^yu 


In  letters  of  friendship  or  other  letters  not  having  the  address  at  the  beginning, 
the  body  of  the  letter  begins  on  the  next  line  below  the  salutation. 

A  uniform  blank  margin  of  about  one  inch  on  letter  paper  and  one-half  an  inch 
on  note  paper  should  be  left  at  the  left-hand  side  of  the  page.  All  except  paragraph 
lines  should  begin  exactly  the  same  distance  from  the  edge  of  the  sheet. 

Xo  regular  margin  should  bo  left  at  the  right-hand  side  of  the  page,  although 
care  should  be  taken  to  make  the  endings  of  the  lines  somewhat  uniform,  which  can 
be  done  by  care  in  spacing  and  by  dividing  long  words  at  syllables.  Care  should  be 
taken  to  divide  words  only  at  syllables,  using  a  hyphen  to  show  the  division,  and 
words  of  one  syllable,  no  matter  how  long  they  are,  should  never  be  divided.  If  in 
doubt  as  to  the  division  of  any  word,  consult  the  dictionary,  which  gives  the  proper 
division  of  all  words  that  admit  of  it. 

The  body  of  the  letter  should  leave  ample  room  for  the  complimentary  closing 
and  signature.  If  more  than  one  page  is  necessary  for  a  letter,  use  another  sheet, 
and  number  the  sheets;  but  do  not  use  a  second  page  or  sheet  simply  for  the  com- 
plimentary closing  and  signature.  Never  write  on  both  sides  of  a  sheet  in  a  busi- 
ness letter,  as  it  is  very  inconvenient  for  reference  after  being  filed. 

The  various  points  or  topics  treated  in  a  letter  should  be  mentioned  in  the  order 
of  their  importance;  but  a  reply  to  a  letter  in  which  the  matters  referred  to  are 
numbered  or  designated  in  some  way,  should  take  up  the  points  in  a  similar  order. 
Many  letters  call  attention  to  so  many  particulars  that  systematic  numbering  or 
designating  of  the  points  makes  them  much  more  desirable  for  future  reference  and 
certainly  does  not  detract  from  their  business-like  appearance;  but  in  the  majority 
of  letters,  sufficient  separation  or  distinction  of  topics  can  be  effected  by  dividing 
into  paragraphs. 

Paragraphing  is  important  to  the  artistic  effect  of  a  letter,  whether  pen-written, 
type-written,  or  printed,  but  it  is  chiefly  valuable  because  of  the  ease  with  which  the 
subjects  mentioned  therein  can  be  clearly  understood,  and  readily  referred  to.  A 
study  of  the  specimen  letters  submitted  in  this  book  will  give  a  fair  idea  of  the  prin- 
ciples of  paragraphing  and,  as  a  further  aid,  the  following  suggestions  are  offered  : 
2 


18  CORRESPONDENCE. 

After  completing  what  is  to  be  said  on  a  topic,  or  some  particular  phase  of  it, 
instead  of  beginning  the  next  thought  directly  after  it  on  the  same  line,  commence 
on  the  next  line  below  at  the  paragraph  space,  about  one  inch  from  the  marginal 
line  on  letter  paper,  and  about  half  an  inch  on  note  paper.  This  rule  is  not  to  be 
followed  absolutely  as,  in  a  sense,  every  new  sentence  introduces  a  new  thought,  but 
it  should  be  understood  that  when  all  that  bears  upon  some  topic  in  a  letter  has  been 
written,  and  it  may  include  several  sentences,  that  the  next  topic  should  begin  with 
a  new  paragraph.  Sometimes  a  paragraph  may  occupy  only  a  line,  in  which  case  the 
next  paragraph  should  begin  as  usual  at  the  paragraph  space. 

Excessive  paragraphing  should  be  avoided  ;  for  example: 

Dear  Sir, — You  -wrote  to  me  sometime  ago  stating  your  inability  to  settle  your  account. 
You  assured  me  that  a  settlement  shorjd  be  made  by  the  10th  ult. 

More  than  a  month  has  passed  since  that  time  and  I  have  received  no  word  from  you.  I 
am  new  compelled  to  write  that  further  delay  in  this  matter  cannot  be  overlooked. 

Ynii  must  be  aware  that  such  dilatory  action  on  your  part  is  not  only  destroying  your 
credit,  but  it  is  causing  me  considerable  inconvenience. 

If  all  my  customers  were  as  tardy  in  settling  their  accounts  I  should  soon  be  obliged  to 
give  up  business. 

Unless  a  settlement  or  a  satisfactory  explanation  of  this  delay  reaches  me  before  the  21st 
inst.,  I  shall  be  under  the  disagreeable  necessity  of  placing  the  matter  in  the  hands  of  my 
attorney. 

A  more  desirable  arrangement  and  division  into  paragraphs  would  be  as  follows : 

Dear  Sir, — You  wrote  to  me  some  time  ago  stating  your  inability  to  settle  your  account,  but 
assuring  me  that  a  settlement  should  be  made  by  the  10th  ult.  More  than  a  month  has  passed 
since  that  time  and  I  have  received  no  word  from  you.  You  must  be  aware  that  such  dilatory 
action  on  your  part  is  not  only  destroying  your  credit,  but  is  causing  me  considerable  incon- 
venience. If  all  my  customers  were  as  tardy  in  settling  their  accounts  I  should  soon  be  obliged 
to  give  up  business. 

I  am  now  compelled  to  write  that  further  delay  in  this  matter  cannot  be  overlooked,  and 
unless  a  settlement  or  a  satisfactory  explanation  of  this  delay  reaches  me  before  the  21st  inst., 
I  shall  be  under  the  disagreeable  necessity  of  placing  the  matter  in  the  hands  of  my  attorney. 

Punctuation.  —  The  body  of  the  letter  should  be  punctuated  like  ordinary 
printed  or  written  matter.  Good  letters  do  not  require  much  punctuation  but 
what  is  necessary  should  not  be  omitted.  Correct  punctuation  is  one  of  the  little 
things  that  always  gives  evidence  of  a  careful  and  correct  correspondent.  Commas, 
periods,  and  interrogation  points  are  all  that  are  usually  required.  Long  sentences 
requiring  the  use  of  complex  punctuation  should  not,  as  a  rule,  be  used  in  business 
letters.  If  in  doubt  as  to  the  use  of  any  mark,  and,  at  the  time,  you  cannot  decide 
as  to  its  proper  use,  rather  omit  it  than  risk  using  it  incorrectly. 

Punctuation  can  be  successfully  learned  by  carefully  observing  the  use  of  the 
different  marks  in  correctly  printed  matter. 

Complimentary  Closing.— The  complimentary  closing  follows  the  body  of  the 
letter  on  the  next  line  below,  and  consists  of  the  words  of  respect  or  regard  used  to 
express  the  writer's  feeling  toward  his  correspondent.  The  terms  used  are  in  a  sense 
merely  conventional,  and  are  employed  by  many  without  thought  as  to  their  meaning, 
but  the  good  correspondent  will  use  the  words  most  appropriate  to  the  occasion. 

The  most  common  forms  of  complimentary  closing  in  business  letters  are:  Respect- 
fully, Yours  respectfully,  Yours  very  respectfully,  Yours  truly,  and  Yours  very 
truly,  any  of  which  may  bo  used  with  any  of  the  three  forms  of  salutation  Sir, 
Dear  Sir,  or  31  y  Dear  Sir,  though  probably,  Dear  Sir  and  My  Dear  Sir  occur  more 
frequently  in  connection  with  Yours  very  truly  and  Yours  very  respectfulh       Many 


PARTS   OF   A   LETTER.  19 

other  phrases  may  be  used ;  as,  Yours  faithfully,  Sincerely  yours,  or  in  formal 
letters,  Your  Oledient  Servant.  Gratefully  yours  may  be  used  if  the  writer  is  under 
obligation  to  the  one  written  to,  or  Fraternally  yours,  if  a  member  of  the  same 
society,  etc.  In  official  letters  a  more  formal  style  is  observed;  as,  /  have  the  honor 
to  remain,  Yours  very  respectfully,  etc. 

The  complimentary  closing  should  always  be  consistent  with  the  salulation  and 
spirit  of  the  letter.  For  instance,  to  introduce  a  letter  with  the  formal  salutation 
"Sir,"  and  close  with  the  familiar  phrase  "Ever  yours,"  would  show  exceedingly 
bad  taste.     The  words  of  the  complimentary  closing  should  never  be  abbreviated. 

If  the  complimentary  closing  is  connected  with  the  last  sentence  of  the  body  of 
the  letter,  as,  Hoping  you  will  give  this  your  immediate  attention,  we  remain,  Yours 
respect ') hilly,  such  sentence  should  always  begin  a  new  paragraph;  "  ive  remain,"  or 
whatever  words  are  used  in  this  connection,  should  not  be  placed  on  a  separate  line 
but  should  be  written  connected  with  the  sentence,  preceded  and  also  followed  by  a 
comma,  and  the  complimentary  closing  follow  on  a  new  line.  If,  however,  the  last 
sentence  of  the  body  of  the  letter  properly  ends  with  a  period  and  the  complimentary 
closing,  We  remain,  Yours  respectfully ,  be  used,  "We  remain,"  in  this  case,  is  a  part 
of  the  complimentary  closing  and  should  usually  begin  a  new  line,  with  the  words 
" Yours  respectfully"  in  their  proper  position  on  the  next  line  following.  These 
instructions  apply  to  all  endings  similar  to  the  above. 

The  complimentary  closing  may  occupy  one,  two,  or  even  three  lines  according  to 
the  terms  used,  and  its  position  is  governed  to  some  extent  by  its  length.  If  only 
one  line  is  required  for  the  closing  term  it  should  be  placed  centrally  on  the  line, 
allowing  an  equal  space  on  each  side.  The  position  of  the  signature, which  is  written 
on  the  next  line  below,  should  be  such  as  to  make  it  terminate  near  the  right-hand 
side  of  the  page,  the  usual  position  for  the  signature  in  all  documents.  If  the  closing 
terms  require  two  or  three  lines  they  should  be  arranged  diagonally  with  the  signa- 
ture. Forms  1,  2,  and  3,  show  the  proper  positions  for  complimentary  closings  and 
signatures,  the  dotted  lines  in  this  case  standing  for  the  signatures. 

Form  1. 


Form  2. 


S 


d?. 


Form  3. 


^UtKOjy 


20  COHKKSl'ONDENCE. 

Punctuation. — [f  there  are  several  parts  to  a  complimentary  closing,  they  should 
be  separated  by  commas,  and  a  comma  should  also  be  placed  after  the  last  part. 
Regarding  the  capitalization  of  the  complimentary  closing,  there  is  some  diversity 
of  opinion,  but  custom  favors  tin*  forms  shown  herewith. 

Signature. — The  signature  is  the  name  of  the  writer,  or  the  firm  or  company  he 
represents,  placed  after  the  complimentary  closing;  and  while  it  may  seem  to  some 
unnecessary  to  treat  the  subject  fully,  observation  shows  that  some  points  regarding 
it  are  not  generally  understood,  and  should  not  only  be  here  mentioned  but  thoroughly 
explained. 

1.     First,  all  letters  should  be  signed.     The  number  of  letters  sent  without  the 
: nature  is  very  large.     Be  sure  your  letter  is  properly  signed  before  enclosing  it  in 
the  envelope. 

Note. — A  firm  well  known  throughout  the  country,  and  doing  a  large  business  chiefly  by 
mail,  was  recently  interviewed  on  this]  mint,  and  over  one  hundred  and  fifty  letters  were  found 
in  a  package  designated  "  No  narru  s,  all  of  winch  were  without  the  signature,  and  some  with- 
out the  post-office.  They  were,  in  every  case  but  one,  orders  tor  goods,  and  had  accumulated 
during  a  period  of  three  months.     This  firm  has  a  printed  card  something  like  the  following : 

P.   M. 

We  have  received  from  your  Post-Office  a  letter  ordering 
goods,  and  containing  $  ,  but  the  writer  forgot  to 

give  a  name.  As  the  person  sending  will  doubtless  call  for 
the  goods,  you  may  be  able  in  this  way  to  ascertain  the 
name  of  our  forgetful  customer  without  much  trouble. 
Please  inform  us  of  the  name  of  the  writer,  or  tell  him  the 
cause  of  the  delay,  if  possible,  and  oblige, 


This  card  is  sent  to  the  Postmaster  when  the  post-office  can  be  ascertained.  The  same  firm  also 
requests  in  its  catalogue  that  all  remittances  be  made  by  Money  Order,  as  the  letter  of  advice, 
containing  the  name  the  writer  forgot  to  sign  in  his  letter  ordering  the  goods,  is  sometimes 
the  only  clue  to  his  identity.  When  a  letter  without  signature  contains  a  remittance,  as  was 
the  ease  with  some  of  the  orders  above  mentioned,  the  situation  becomes  aggravated,  as  it 
places  the  business  house  in  a  position  to  be  charged  with  a  lack  of  promptness  in  filling 
orders,  if  not  intentional  fraud. 

2.  The  signature  should  be  plainly  written.  In  the  spelling  of  common  words  a 
letter  or  a  word  not  plainly  written  may  be  guessed  at  with  some  certainty,  as  the 
remainder  of  the  word,  or  the  accompanying  words,  usually  indicate  what  the  obscure 
portion  is  intended  to  be;  but  in  many  proper  names  this  is  impossible,  and  although 
the  signature  may  be  plain  enough  to  the  writer,  it  may  be  absolutely  impossible  for 
another  to  read  it.  Some  correspondents  have  the  wretched  habit  of  making  the 
signature  the  most  illegible  part  of  their  letters. 

Sometimes  a  signature  is  so  illegible  that  the  only  possible  way  in  which  a  reply 
can  be  addressed  is  by  cutting  out  the  signature  and  pasting  it  upon  the  envelope, 
trusting  to  the  skill  of  the  post-office  experts  to  decipher  it. 

A  woman  writing  to  a  stranger  when  a  reply  is  expected,  should  prefix  to  her 
signature,  in  parenthesis,  either  the  title  Miss,  or  Mrs.,  so  that  the  reply  may  be 
properly  addressed.  This  is  entirely  proper,  and  no  feeling  of  delicacy  or  propriety 
should  be  allowed  to  cause  hesitation  on  this  essential  point.  And  yet,  not  only  is  this 
necessary  information  frequently  withheld,  but  even  the  sex  cannot  be  determined 
from  the  name.  It  is  very  embarrassing,  for  instance,  to  reply  to  a  letter  from  Mary 
A.  Gordon,  not  knowing  whether  to  address  her  as  Mrs.  or  3fiss,  and  still  more  so, 
if  the  letter,  supposed  to  be  from  a  woman,  is  signed  M.  A.  Gordon,  as  in  this  case 
the  title  may  be  Mr.,  Mrs.,  or  Miss. 


PARTS   OF  A   LETTER.  21 

A  signature  should  always  be  written,  as  nearly  as  possible,  in  the  same  form  and 
style.  Adopt  a  style  that  is  plain  and  distinct.  Avoid  unusual  forms  and  fantastic 
connections,  for  besides  being  illegible,  experts  on  handwriting  say  such  signatures 
are  usually  the  easiest  to  counterfeit.  Always  write  your  name  in  the  same  manner. 
J.  W.  Smith,  John  IF.  Smith,  J.  William  Smith,  and  Willie  Smith  should  not  stand 
for  the  same  person  on  different  days  of  the  week. 

Where  several  members  of  a  firm  sign  the  firm  name,  it  is  sometimes  desirable  that 
the  signatures  of  the  different  members  be  readily  distinguished.  This  is  done  by 
writing  under  the  signature  per  Blcmh,  using  the  initials  or  the  surname.  When 
one  person,  for  any  reason,  signs  another's  name,  it  is  also  customary  to  use  the 
above  form,  the  writer  signing  his  own  name  in  full. 

In  official  letters,  letters  from  corporations,  and  the  business  letters  of  one  of  the 
officers  of  a  firm,  the  signature  should  be  followed  by  the  name  of  the  office  the 
writer  holds;  as,  Manager,  General  Superintendent,  President,  Secretary,  etc. 

The  signature  should  be  written  on  the  next  line  following  the  complimentary 
closing,  and  should  begin  so  as  to  finish  near  the  right-hand  edge  of  the  sheet;  as, 

I  Form  1. 


ko^W^^-,. 


Form  2. 


Form  3. 

EXERCISES. 

Write  the  following  exercises  in  proper  form: 

1.  Yours  very  respectfully  Brown  Brothers  &  Co. 

2.  I  remain  Yours  very  truly  John  Brown  Davis  General  Agent. 

3.  Soliciting  a  continuance  of  the  confidence  hitherto  reposed  in  us  we  remain 
yours  very  respectfully  J.  P.  Hopewell  Sweet  &  Co  per  Sweet. 

4.  Appreciating  past  favors  we  remain  dear  sirs  yours  faithfully  Western  Electric 
Manufacturing  Co  per  II  Brown  Secretary. 

5.  Will  you  kindly  remit  us  check  for  balance  of  last  order  yours  truly  J.  W. 
Martin  Bro  &  Co  per  J.  W.  M. 


22 


COKHKSl'ONDKXCE. 


G.  Awaiting  your  further  commands  wo  are  Yours  very  respectfully  Waltei 
Wellman's  Sons. 

7.  Your  obedient  servant  S  J  Roberts  Acting  Secretary. 

8.  Trusting  to  be  favored  with  a  continuance  of  your  patronage  and  assuring 
yen  of  <»ur  best  efforts  to  please  you  we  remain  Yours  very  truly  Empire  Moulding 
Co.  per  Willis. 

9.  Please  comply  with  the  above  request  at  your  earliest  convenience  and  oblige 
Yours  respectfully  Martin  II.  Jones. 

LO.     Hoping  to  receive  a  favorable  reply  I  am  dear  sir  Very  respectfully  yours 
J.  D.  Thompson  M.  D. 


FOLDING,  INSERTING,  AND   SEALING. 

Folding. — The  letter  sheet  should  be  folded  so  that  it  will  nearly  fill  the  envelope 
and  yet  admit  of  being  inserted  or  removed  with  perfect  ease. 

To  fold  a  sheet  of  letter  paper  to  fit  an  ordinary  envelope,  lay  it  before  you  as 
when  writing  upon  it  and  turn  the  lower  edge  up  far  enough  to  make  the  sheet,  as 
then  folded,  a  little  less  than  the  length  of  the  envelope,  and  press  down  the  fold 
neatly  and  firmly,  making  the  side  edges  exactly  even;  then  make  equal  folds  from 
the  right  and  left  so  that  the  sheet,  as  then  folded,  will  be  slightly  narrower  than 
the  envelope. 

The  following  illustration  is  of  a  letter  sheet  folded  as  directed  above,  with  the 
side  folds  not  pressed  down. 

ILLUSTRATION"  OF  FOLDED  LETTER  SHEET. 


A  note  sheet  should  be  folded  over  from  the  bottom  to  about  one-third  the  length 
of  the  sheet,  and  the  upper  end  folded  down  so  that  the  sheet,  as  then  folded,  will  be 
slightly  narrower  than  the  envelope  used. 

To  fold  a  letter  sheet  to  fit  an  official  envelope,  follow  the  directions  given  above 
for  folding  a  note  sheet. 

Inserting. — After  the  letter  has  been  folded  as  directed  above,  to  insert  it,  take 
the  envelope  in  the  left-hand,  with  the  back  of  it  up,  and  the  opening  toward  the 
right;  then  take  up  the  letter  with  the  other  hand,  as  it  lay  after  folding,  and  insert 
it,  putting  in  the  last  folded  edge  first. 


ENVELOPE    ADDRESS    A\D    STAMP.  23 

A  letter  inserted  in  this  manner  can  be  removed  easily  and  quickly;  and  if  the 
envelope  is  opened  at  the  top  (which  is  the  usual  way)  or  at  the  right-hand  end,  the 
letter,  when  taken  out,  will  be  found  to  be  right  side  up. 

Sealing. — All  ordinary  letters  should  be  carefully  and  neatly  sealed.  As  the  use 
of  gummed  envelopes  is  now  almost  universal,  the  process  of  sealing  letters  is  a 
simple  matter.  The  gummed  part  should  be  slightly  dampened,  and  the  flap  j)ressed 
down  tightly  and  held  a  moment  till  it  adheres.  Care  should  be  taken  not  to  soil 
the  envelope,  and  also  not  to  remove  all  the  gum  from  the  flap  in  the  process  of 
dampening,  as  is  sometimes  done.  If  ordinary  mucilage  is,  for  any  reason,  used, 
care  should  be  taken  not  to  stick  the  envelope  to  the  letter  sheet.  Letters  of  great 
imj^ortance  are  sometimes  sealed  with  wax,  thus  rendering  it  impossible  to  open 
them  without  destroying  the  seal  or  mutilating  the  envelope.  But  wax  is  now 
seldom  used,  except  for  money  j^ackages  and  other  valuable  matter. 

Letters  of  introduction  and  letters  of  recommendation  should  not  be  sealed. 


THE   ENVELOPE  ADDRESS  AND   STAMP. 

The  Envelope  Address. — The  outside  address,  or  superscription,  is  written  on 
the  envelope  and  consists  of  the  name,  title,  and  post-office  directions  of  the  partv 
for  whom  the  letter  is  intended. 

The  name  and  title  should  be  written  on  the  center  of  the  envelope,  on  an  imaginarv 
line  parallel  to  its  top  and  bottom  edges,  as  illustrated  in  the  five  specimen  addresses 
shown  on  page  25.  When  the  street  and  number  are  given,  as  shown  in  the  first 
illustration,  or  some  other  similar  direction,  as  "In  care  of,"  shown  in  the  last  illus- 
tration, it  follows  on  the  second  line.  In  such  cases  the  name  of  the  city  is  written 
on  the  third  line,  but  in  all  others  on  the  second.  The  name  of  the  county,  when 
given,  should  be  written  on  the  third  line,  as  in  the  second  illustration.  The  name 
of  the  state  is  usually  abbreviated,  and  always  occupies  the  last  line.  The  lower  left- 
hand  corner  of  the  envelope  is  sometimes  used  for  the  number  of  the  post-office 
box;  and  in  letters  of  introduction  the  name  of  the  party  introduced  should  always  be 
placed  in  this  position,  as  illustrated  in  the  third  and  fourth  examples.  Unusual  or 
special  instructions  of  any  kind  should  be  placed  in  the  lower  left-hand  corner  of  the 
envelope. 

The  position  of  the  parts  of  the  address  below  the  name  should  be  as  shown  in 
the  illustrations,  each  succeeding  part  beginning  a  little  to  the  right  of  the  one  above 
it,  and  written  in  straight  lines  equally  distant  from  each  other  and  parallel  to  the 
edges  of  the  envelope.  Do  not  rule  the  envelope,  as  it  is  not  only  unbusiness-like 
but  takes  time,  besides  giving  it  the  appearance  of  having  been  addressed  by  a  novice. 
The  ability  to  write  straight  on  an  envelope  can  be  acquired  by  anyone  who  will 
give  it  a  reasonable  amount  of  practice. 

A  person  should  always  be  addressed  in  writing  as  he  himself  writes  his  name. 
We  are  bound  to  respect  the  wishes,  or  even  whims,  of  our  correspondents  in  this 
regard,  by  always  writing  their  names  as  they  themselves  write  them.  If  a  person 
sees  fit  to  divide  or  spell  his  name  in  a  peculiar  manner,  he  has  a  perfect  right  to  do 
eo,  and  in  no  other  way  is  he  properly  addressed  in  writing. 

The  style  of  the  writing  should  be  neat,  plain,  and  unmistakable.     Names  of 
post-offices,  and  some  of  the  abbreviations  of  the  names  <>f  the  states,  are  so  nearlv 


24  CORRESPONDENCE. 

alike  that,  unless  the  writing  is  perfectly  legible,  the  letter  may  ho  forwarded  ta 
the  wrong  place.  For  instance,  in  Colorado  and  California  there  are  many  post- 
offices  of  the  same  name;  as.  Fair  Play,  Florence,  Georgetown,  Greenwood,  Jackson, 
Jamestown,  etc.;  ami,  it*  a  letter  were  addressed,  say,  to  Greenwood,  Colorado,  and 
the  writer  abbreviated  Colorado  to  Col.  (as  is  often  done)  instead  of  Colo.,  without 
making  the  "o"  very  plain,  or  without  stating  the  county,  his  letter  would  be  liable 
to  be  missent.  Or  again,  New  York  and  New  Jersey  have  post-offices  of  the  same 
name,  as  Allentown,  Andover,  Belvidere,  Garfield,  Kingston,  Trenton,  etc.,  audit 
often  happens  that  t  iie  "  Y  '  or  "J  "  are  written  so  imperfectly  that  letters  addressed 
to  these  post-offices  are  sent  to  the  wrong  state.  To  prevent  this,  many  correspond- 
ents almost  invariably  write  the  name  of  the  county. 

The  envelope  should  be  placed  before  the  writer  so  that  the  flap  is  farthest  from 
him,  otherwise  it  will  be  addressed  upside  down;  and  the  letter  should  not  be  inserted 
until  after  the  address  is  written.  The  envelope  used  for  business  purposes  should 
have  upon  its  upper  left-hand  corner,  either  printed  or  written,  the  address  of  the 
writer,  with  a  request  to  return,  if  uncalled  for,  after  a  certain  number  of  days,  usually 
5  or  10,  at  the  end  of  which  time  it  will  be  returned  to  him;  but  without  this 
recpiest,  if  not  called  for,  it  will  be  forwarded  to  the  dead  letter  office. 

When  several  letters  are  written  at  one  time,  to  avoid  enclosing  them  in  the  wrong 
envelopes,  it  is  suggested  that,  as  each  envelope  is  addressed,  the  letter  to  which  it 
belongs  be  enclosed  at  once;  or,  if  the  letter  is  to  be  reviewed  by  some  one  else,  it 
should  lie  slipped,  unfolded,  under  the  flap  of  the  envelope. 

When  letters  are  addressed  to  commercial  travelers,  tourists  or  others  who  are  only 
temporarily  stopping  in  a  city,  especially  one  where  the  free  delivery  system  is  in 
operation,  such  letters  should  be  marked  "Transient"  or  "General  Delivery," 
unless  some  stated  place,  other  than  the  post-office,  is  included  in  the  address.  If 
the  person  be  stopping  at  a  place  not  having  the  free  delivery  system,  the  letter  may 
be  marked  "Not  a  resident,"  "  Transient,"  or  words  to  that  effect.  This  is  done  to 
obviate  the  risk  of  the  letter  being  delivered  to  a  resident  of  the  same  or  similar  name. 

The  Stamp. — The  postage  on  all  letters  should  be  fully  prepaid,  by  affixing  a 
stamp  of  the  proper  denomination.  The  stamp  should  be  neatly  and  firmly  attached 
to  the  upper  right-hand  corner  of  the  face  of  the  envelope,  as  shown  in  the  illustra- 
tions on  page  25.  The  placing  of  the  stamp  in  any  other  position  on  the  envelope 
indicates  a  degree  of  carelessness  or  ignorance  that  is  deplorable.  One  stamp  of  the 
proper  denomination  should  always  be  used,  if  possible,  instead  of  two  of  a  lesser  value. 

Overweight  letters  are  not  forwarded  unless  one  full  rate  (2  cents)  is  prepaid,  in 
which  case  the  postage  due  is  collected  at  the  office  of  delivery.  If,  however,  one 
full  rate  is  not  prepaid,  the  letter  is  not  forwarded  until  the  postage  is  paid.  Id 
this  case  the  writer  is  notified,  if  his  name  can  be  ascertained,  and  if  not,  the  person 
addressed  is  notified  that  a  letter  addressed  to  him  is  held  for  the  necessary  postage, 
and  that  it  will  be  forwarded  upon  receipt  of  the  same. 

If  the  adhesive  gum-  has  been  removed  from  the  stamp  in  any  way,  mucilage 
should  be  used  to  attach  it,  firmly  to  the. envelope.  It  should  not  be  necessary  to 
inform  one  with  even  the  meagerest  amount  of  taste  and  culture  that  the  stamp 
should  be  right  end  up. 

When  a  stamp  is  inclosed  in  a  letter,  slightly  dampen  one  corner  and  attach  it  to 
the  face  of  the  letter  sheet.  Courtesy  requires  that  letters  to  disinterested  parties, 
especially  letters  asking  favors,  should  contain  a  stamp  for  reply. 


ENVELOPE    ADDRESS    AND    STAMP. 


2? 


26  CORRESPONDENCE. 

Opening;  Letters. — Letters  are  opened  properly  by  cutting  the  top  open  length- 
wise with  any  convenient  instrument.  If  letters  arc  opened  in  this  way,  the  con- 
tents are  more  easily  Been,  and  inelosures  that  may  be  separate  from  the  folded 
letter  sheet  are  Less  liable  to  be  overlooked;  also,  the  letter  sheet  is  more  easily 
removed,  and  if  it  is  attached  to  the  envelope,  as  sometimes  happens,  it  can  be  taken 
out  without  being  mutilated. 


■.- 


EXERCISES. 

Write    the  following    envelope    addresses.      Unruled    paper   cut   to  the  size  of 
envelopes,  or  ruled  paper  cut  so  the  writing  will  be  across  the  lines,  may  be  used. 

1.  Mr.  E.  S.  Cushman  Delhi  Mills,  Mich. 

2.  F  B  Kenyon  Esq  24  E  Dean  st  Lockport  X  Y. 

3.  Hamilton  Brown  LLD  care  of  W  H  Wentworth  Esq  Ithaca  X  Y. 

4.  Hon  John  Brown  Goodrich  Penn  Park  cor  H  street  Philadelphia  Pa. 

5.  Miss  Elizabeth  Duncan  Vassar  College  Poughkeepsie  X  Y. 
G,     Mrs  Henry  W  French  Box  24  Lincoln  Onoka  Co  S  Dak. 

7.  Messrs  J  C  Bradstreet,  Bingham  &  Co  Clothiers  and  Furnishers  about  400 
Broadway  Xewr  York. 

8.  Kansas  City  Journal  Journal  Building  cor  10th  and  Walnut  Sts  Kansas 
City  Mo. 

9.  Mrs  D  H  Brown  or  Mrs  W  D  Hilton  Chautauqua  X  Y. 

10.  •    Messrs  Bannig  &  True  (As  nearly  as  we  can  ascertain)  Photographers  Min- 
neapolis Minn. 

11.  ABC  care  of  Daily  Tribune  City. 

12.  John  Brown  D  D  Stanwix  House  Denver  Colo  Please  forward. 

13.  Mr  Peter  Henderson  Detroit  Mich  Transient. 

14.  Prof  Geo  C  Ostrander  Springfield  Mass  General  Delivery. 

15.  Dr  James  Kobison  care  of  Robison  Bently  &  Brown  Girard  Pa  Personal. 

16.  Silas  Warner  Esq  Geneva  0  Deliver  without  delay  if  possible. 

17.  William  W  Duncan  M  D  Xew  Haven  Conn  Deliver  to  addressee  only. 

18.  Mr  John  Smith  Augusta  Me  General  Delivery  Xot  a  resident. 

19.  Mr  Washington  Howe  Avon  X  Y  After  one  week  P  M  will  please  forward  to 
Penn  Yan  X  Y. 

20.  Master  William  Young  care  of  Dr  J  G  Young  Homer  Idaho  Ter. 

Postal  Cards. — Postal  cards  are  properly  employed  for  making  brief  business 
announcements  of  an  informal  and  usually  of  an  unimportant  character.  A  written 
message  that  approaches  the  dignity  of  a  letter  should  not  be  entrusted  to  a  postal 
card.  This  is  principally  on  account  of  their  publicity,  and  also  for  the  reason  that 
many  have  a  contempt  for  one  who  uses  such  a  medium  for  important  communica- 
tions.  Further  reasons  why  they  should  not  be  employed  for  important  business 
are,  that  they  are  not  returned  to  the  writer  if  uncalled  for,  but  destroyed  by  the 
postmaster,  and  also  because  they  are  naturally  treated  as  less  important  than  sealed 
letters,  and  are,  consequently,  more  likely  to  be  miscarried,  misplaced,  or  lost. 

It  is  not  good  taste  to  use  postal  cards  for  any  kind  of  social  correspondence. 

Instructions  regarding  letters  also  apply  to  postal  cards,  with  the  exception  that 
the  inside  address  is  omitted,  the  heading  and  the  salutation  only  preceding  the 
message. 

Nothing  but  the  address  should  be  written  on  the  face  of  postal  cards,  as  post- 


ENVELOPE    ADDRESS    AXD    STAMP.  27 

masters  are  instructed  not  to  forward  them  if  they  do  not  conform  to  this  rule. 
The  U.  S.  Postal  Guide  says:  "~No  printing  or  writing  is  permitted  upon  the 
address  side  of  the  postal  card  (except  the  address),  nor  is  it  allowable  to  paste, 
gum,  or  attach  anything  thereto,  except  an  address  label  to  be  used  for  the  address 
upon  the  card." 

CORRECTED    LETTER. 


^/^^zy  /^/^T^y  C^  02Sti, 


j+r+*r 


'<?z^?S/fy  /<&&£* 


^^^-^v^^c^^^ 


a^z^X^i&- j^L^w^ 


Mi  " 


Correcting  Exercises. — It  is  important  that  all  exercises  be  carefully  corrected. 
It  is  usually  better  to  give  short  exercises,  and  have  them  carefully  written  and  cor- 
rected, than  longer  ones  that  must  be  hurried  over  or  passed  without  correction.  It 
is  important  that  incorrect  exercises  be  rewritten  in  proper  form  for  the  practice, 
and  that  the  corrected  work  may  be  preserved  for  reference.  It  is  also  sometimes 
desirable  to  preserve  corrected  exercises  by  which  to  measure  future  progress.  Many 
of  the  errors  of  letters  are  due  more  to  a  lack  of  care  than  a  lack  of  knowledge,  and 
>iieh  mistakes  are  the  least  excusable.  Nothing  short  of  absolute  accuracy  should 
se  tolerated  in  all  the  work,  and  habits  of  care  and  neatness  should  be  inculcated 
from  the  start. 

The  accompanying  corrected  letter  illustrates  a  simple  method  of  correcting  com- 
mon errors. 


2S  CORRESPONDENCE. 

REVIEW    EXERCISES. 

1.  9  Coe  st  Erie  Pa  Oct  1  1890  W  Ooy  Esq  Ely  0     *     *     *     1  am  yours  truly 

J   Nye. 

2.  <  Office  of  Superior  Lumber  Co  Duluth  Minu  Jan  20  1891  Hon  Daniel  South- 
wick  House  o£  Representatives  Washington  D  C  My  dear  Sir  *  *  *  I  have  the 
honor  to  remain  yours  very  truly  David  Carson. 

3.  Linden  Cal  Aug  20  1889  D  Appleton  &  Co  1  3  and  5  Bond  Street  New  York 
Gentlemen  What  are  your  tonus  and  prices  for  your  "British  Art"?  Please  give 
quotations  for  the  work  both  in  pamphlet  form  and  bound  in  two  volumes  in  half 
Russia.  {  Paragraph  here.  )  If  you  have  an  agent  in  this  vicinity  vvho  will  call  on 
us  we  may  conclude  to  handle  some  of  your  goods  Yours  respectfully  Manson  Bros. 

4.  Room  20  Westinghouse  Building  Pittsburgh  Pa  Nov  21  1889  Messrs  Iloyt, 
Williamson  &  Hoyt  ( 'or  Stephenson  Park  and  "West  II  St  San  Francisco  Cal  Dear 
Mrs  *  *  *  We  put  this  matter  in  your  hands  without  definite  instructions 
trusting  that  you  will  give  it  your  best  attention  we  remain  yours  very  respectfulbj 
The  Iron  Mountain  Iron  Co  per  J  "Wren  Sec. 

5.  904  East  loth  Street  Kansas  City  Mo  June  12  1889  DrHW  Stanford  Presi- 
dent of  the  London  Medical  Dispensary  25  Warwick  square  Manchester  Eng  Dear 
Sir  I  inclose  herewith  Five  Dollars  ($5)  for  your  *  *  *  Please  forward  as  soon 
as  possible  and  oblige  Yours  respectfully  O  P  Bloss. 

6.  N  Staffordshire  Westmoreland  County  N  H  Aug  4  1889  John  T  Williamson 
Manfg  Co  9G8  S  Monument  St  Philadelphia  Pa  Gentlemen  *  *  *  By  giving 
this  your  immediate  attention  you  will  relieve  us  of  the  painful  necessity  of  using 
means  that  will  force  this  matter  to  a  conclusion  we  are  yours  respectfully  Bell  Bros 
&  Yates. 

; .  96  Hampton  Place  Denver  Colo  Mar  12  1890  Mr  John  R  Snell  87  San  Juan 
Terrace  Quito  Ecuador  S  A  via  San  Francisco  Dear  Sir  *  *  *  I  am  sir  Very 
respectfully  yours  J  II  Wenthrop. 

8.  Room  Go  New  England  Building  Chicago  111  Aug  1  1889  Mr  A  Carr  care  J 
Pierce  Dominion  Land  Surveyor  Moosehead  Lake  via  Edmonton  North  West  Ter 
Dear  Sir  This  is  my  third  letter  to  you  since  hearing  from  you  *  *  *  (  Para- 
graph here.)  If  my  letters  reach  you  in  a  bunch  I  hope  you  will  make  a  clean 
sweep  and  answer  them  all  at  once  Yours  truly  W  Conn. 

9.  44  Avenue  B  Tick  Park  Rochester  N  Y  Aug  6  1889  John  Hampden  Esq  105 
Cumberland  Court  E  London  Eng  Dear  Sir  Your  letter  of  June  25  came  during  my 
absence     *     *     *     Yours  very  truly  Jas  M  Gilbert. 

10.  Office  of  Alex  Dwight  &  Co  Bankers  24  Wall  st  New  York  USA  July  9 
1880  Mr  Geo  T  Venedicoff  37  Lege  rue  Sophia  Bulgaria  Europe  Dear  Sir  *  *  * 
Thanking  you  for  the  confidence  reposed  in  us  and  pledging  you  our  best  efforts  in 
your  behalf  we  have  the  honor  to  remain  very  respectfully  your  obedient  servants 
Alex  Dwight  &  Co. 

11  Grecncastle  Pa  July  30  1889  Messrs  D  &  H  Vail  Proprietors  of  the  Hanover 
News  Hanover  Mich  Gentlemen  Your  favor  of  the  28th  inst  received  We  expect  to 
ship  your  order  to-morrow  and  it  should  reach  you  in  time.  (Paragraph  here.)  We 
have  your  dispatch  to-day  regarding  Warren's  paper  and  have  wired  answer  that  it 
has  just  been  shipped  with  car  load  of  Press.  (Paragraph.)  We  are  very  much 
afraid  that  we  cannot  get  to  the  Elliott  order  before  the  latter  part  of  the  week 
Will  you  advise  us  what  sizes  he  wanted  first  Yours  truly  Jones  Paper  Co  per  Tyler. 


SOME   SPECIAL   POINTS.  g» 


Some  Special  Poustts. 

Errors  ill  Letters. — Anything  in  a  letter  that  indicates  a  lack  of  care  shows 
a  degree  of  disrespect  to  the  one  written  to,  and  for  this  reason  especially,  such 
tendencies  should  be  avoided.  Blots  and  other  errors  due  to  mere  slovenliness,  are 
not  excusable  in  letters,  but  stamp  the  writer  as  wanting  in  some  of  those  graces 
that  make  the  cultured  gentleman.  Errors  in  grammar,  errors  in  spelling,  or  in  the 
use  of  capital  letters,  show  a  lack  of  education  that  the  circumstances  may  in  a 
measure  excuse;  but  with  all  the  advantages  for  acquiring  such  knowledge  in  these 
days,  in  the  young  especially,  such  ignorance  is  more  apt  to  be  due  to  a  lack  of 
appreciation  of  the  value  of  such  information  than  a  lack  of  opportunity  to  acquire 
it.  For  these  and  other  reasons,  a  letter  is  usually  an  index  to  the  man.  If  errors 
are  discovered  after  the  letter  is  written,  it  is,  as  a  rule,  much  better  to  rewrite  it 
than  to  send  it  away  disfigured  by  one's  own  corrections. 

The  habit  of  interlining  should  also  be  avoided,  which  can  be  done  by  rewriting 
all  letters  having  iTiterlineations  in  them. 

One. should  be  especially  careful  not  to  make  such  palpable  errors  in  the  super- 
scription of  letters  as  may  possibly  subject  correspondents  to  humiliation  and 
embarrassment,  should  they  receive  letters  through  a  third  party. 

Imperfect  Addresses. — More  than  five  million  letters  and  parcels,  containing 
more  than  £10,000,000,  go  to  the  dead  letter  office  every  year.  Why  do  so  many  go 
astray?  For  the  reason  that  the-addresses  are  absent  altogether,  or  because  they  are 
illegible,  incomplete,  or  incorrect. 

The  most  common  error  in  addresses  is  made  in  writing  the  state  illegibly,  incor- 
rectly, or  by  omitting  it  entirely.  Such  letters,  if  the  writer's  name  cannot  be  determ- 
ined, are  sent  at  once  to  the  dead  letter  office.  Another  reason  why  many  letters 
go  astray  is  on  account  of  the  name  of  the  post-office  being  omitted,  illegibly  or 
incorrectly  written, or  misspelled;  and  many  letters  never  reach  the  proper  destina- 
tion because  the  name  of  the  party  written  to  is  illegible,  or  written  incorrectly  by 
dividing  the  name  in  an  unusual  way,  by  not  spelling  it  correctly,  or  omitting  or 
mistaking  the  initials. 

Thousands  of  letters  are  every  year  posted  without  any  directions  whatever,  and,  of 
course,  go  direct  to  the  dead  letter  office,  if  they  do  not  have  the  address  of  the  writer 
on  them.  It  is  certain  that  a  large  proportion,  if  not  a  majority,  of  letters  go  wrong 
for  the  simple  reason  that,  in  directing  replies,  given  post-office  directions  are  not 
followed  to  the  letter. 

Spelling. — Bad  spelling  is  one  of  the  worst  faults  that  letters  contain.  With 
dictionaries  so  cheap  and  accessible  as  they  are,  there  is  simply  no  excuse  for  one 
who  habitually  misspells  words  in  an  ordinary  letter.  Many  a  young  man  fails  to 
gain  positions  because  of  his  misspelling  in  his  letters  of  application,  and  the  unfortu- 
nate fact  regarding  it  is  that  generally  he  does  not  know  that  it  was  his  poor  spelling 
that  disqualified  him.  Excellent  penmanship  and  composition  only  serve  to  make 
poor  spelling  more  conspicuous.  Look  up  every  word  of  your  letter  rather  than 
send  it  out  with  one  word  misspelled.  A  habit  of  using  the  dictionary  will  correct 
the  very  worst  spelling. 


30  CORRESPONDENCE. 

Penmanship. — One  of  the  indispensable  elements  of  a  perfect  letter  is  good 
penmanship.  Good  penmanship  is  that  which  is  legible,  easily  and  rapidly  written, 
and  pleasing  in  appearance.     One  who  aspires  to  become  a  good  correspondent  must 

e  careful  attention  to  this  subject.  Improvement  can  be  made  in  this,  as  well  as* 
in  other  branches,  by  correct  and  persistent  practice. 

Good  writing  is  not  only  desirable  as  an  accomplishment,  bnt  it  is  also  many  timed 
a  means  of  securing  material  advancement.  Few  acquisitions  are  more  appreciated 
by  the  possessor,  or  are  more  valuable,  than  the  ability  to  write  a  legible,  rapid  hand. 

Mixing  Business  and  Friendship. — In  case  both  parties  to  a  letter  are  on 
terms  of  friendly  intimacy,  the  temptation  to  interject  matter  which  should  never 
appear  in  a  business  letter  is  very  strong.  The  chief  objection  to  be  urged  against 
such  a  dual  character  in  a  business  letter  lies  in  the  fact  that,  in  looking  over  the 
letter-tile  afterward,  which  is  frequently  clone,  it  becomes  necessary  to  consume  time 
in  reading  matter  which  has  no  relation  to  the  information  sought.  Again,  the 
writer  cannot  always  be  sure  that  the  recipient  will  have  time  during  business  hours 
to  cull  a  few  necessary  particulars  from  such  a  quantity  of  foreign  matter.  While 
there  exists  no  valid  objection  to  the  same  envelope  covering  two  letters,  one  a. busi- 
ness communication  and  the  other  one  of  social  character,  it  is  advised  that  the  two 
features  be  divorced,  at  least  to  the  extent  of  occupying  separate  sheets. 

Verbiage. — A  very  common  error  with  business  men  who  are  not  pressed  for 
time,  lies  in  the  inclination  to  write  long  letters,  when  shorter  ones  would  meet  every 
requirement.  While  the  writer  may  have  abundant  time  to  beat  about  the  bush  in 
making  an  order,  in  acknowledging  a  remittance,  or  in  the  construction  of  any  kind 
of  a  business  letter,  the  man  at  the  other  end  of  the  line  may  not  be  so  fortunate,  or 
unfortunate.  He  may  find  it  a  positive  hardship  to  be  compelled  to  wade  through 
a  number  of  tortuous  sentences  to  get  at  the  gist  of  a  very  simple  matter,  and  it  ia 
quite  probable  that  frequently  he  will  find  it  difficult  to  determine  the  writer's  mean- 
ing, from  the  very  fact  of  the  unnecessary  multiplication  of  words. 

Hasty  Replies. — Many  perplexing  and  provoking  matters  arise  in  the  corres- 
pondence of  a  business  house,  and  a  judicious  correspondent  will  be  constantly  on 
bis  guard  lest  he  write  something  in  haste,  and  perhaps  in  anger,  that  he  would 
afterward  deeply  regret.  It  is  wise  to  consider  carefully  and  act  deliberately.  When 
constrained  to  write  severe  things,  the  letter  should  be  permitted  to  lie  over  night 
for  review  before  mailing.  If  this  be  done,  it  is  probable  that  the  character  of  the 
letter  will  be  changed  radically,  or  perhaps  it  will  remain  unmailed.  Many  letters 
which  would  seem  ample  provocation  for  a  sharp  reply  had  better  go  unanswered. 
Kind  words  make  and  hold  friends,  while  hasty  or  vindictive  words  alienate  friends 
and  injure  business. 

Copying  Letters. — Copies  of  all  letters  containing  matter  of  importance  should 
be  preserved.  Afac  simile,  made  with  a  copying-press,  is  a  most  satisfactory  means 
of  preserving  a  copy  of  a  letter.  If  the  communication  be  dictated  to  a  stenogra- 
pher, the  short-hand  notes  may  be  preserved,  and  if  the  communication  be  a  reply 
to  one  received,  the  chief  points  of  the  reply  may  be  minuted  on  the  letter  to  which 
the  one  sent  is  a  reply. 

Style  of  Expression. — The  style  of  expression  most  suitable  for  business  lettere 
is  essentially  different  from  that  of  other  correspondence,  requiring  greater  brevity, 
accuracy,  and  force  of  statement.     What  would  be  regarded  a  good  literary  styla 


SOME   SPECIAL   POINTS.  31 

might  be  considered  quite  objectionable  in  business,  where  time  is  too  precious  to  be 
wasted  on  words,  and  the  sooner  the  point  can  be  reached  the  better,  both  for  the 
writer  and  his  correspondent.  It  is  necessary  to  cultivate  acquaintance  with  the 
terms  and  phrases  peculiar  to  the  line  of  business  in  which  one  is  engaged,  as  by  their 
proper  use  the  correspondent  is  greatly  assisted  in  making  his  letters  brief  and  distinct. 
Aside  from  these  technical  terms,  the  more  natural  and  original  the  style  of  expres- 
sion the  better.  A  person  who  has  acquired  the  ability  to  express  his  thoughts 
clearly  and  effectively  on  general  questions  will  find  less  difficulty  in  adapting  him- 
self to  the  language  peculiar  to  any  business  than  one  who  has  not  cultivated  this 
faculty;  hence  the  value  of  training  upon  general  exercises  in  letter  writing. 

As  an  aid  to  the  cultivation  of  originality  and  directness  in  business  letters,  it  is 
suggested  that  the  writer  imagine  his  correspondent  to  be  standing  at  his  side,  and 
that  he  write  in  his  letter  what  he  would  say  in  person  if  he  were  explaining  the 
matter.  Such  a  course  would  be  a  Avise  one  for  all  persons  in  their  correspondence, 
as  it  would  not  only  encourage  a  natural  and  original  style,  but  would  act  as  a 
restraint  to  the  hasty  and  bitter  words  one  is  perhaps  more  liable  to  use  in  letters 
than  in  conversation. 

The  several  specimen  letters  presented  in  this  work  are  to  be  considered  more  ia 
the  light  of  suggestions  than  of  absolute  standards.  While  they  cover  but  a  limited 
portion  of -the  ground  of  general  correspondence,  it  is  believed  that  they  contain 
sufficient  variety  to  form  a  good  foundation  from  which  to  work  out  into  successful 
practice  upon  any  line  ■  of  correspondence  that  may  be  required.  The  examples 
selected  contain  some  of  the  most  difficult  tasks  in  letter-writing  a  correspondent 
will  be  called  upon  to  perform. 

Modifying  Words. — The  modifying  words,  phrases,  and  clauses  should  be  so 
placed  as  ro  make  it  clear  what  they  modify. 

The  following  sentence  (taken  from  a  bona-fide  letter) — ■ 

"We  hand  you  Fifteen  ($15)  Dollars  in  payment  for  the  conrpendiurus  received  yesterday 
which  please  acknowledge  and  receipt  bill  you  will  find  enclosed  as  soon  as  convenient," 

directs  the  correspondent  to  acknowledge  the  compendiums  and  requests  him  to  find 
the  bill  enclosed  as  soon  as  convenient.     Such  ambiguity  may  be  avoided  thus; 


'The  compendiums  -were  received  yesterday.     In  payment  we  hand  you  Fifteen  ($15) 
liars,  which  please  acknowledge  as  soon  as  convenient  by  returning  enclosed  bill  receipted. 


< 

Dollars 


The  following  is  more  concise: 


'& 


The  comijendiums  came  yesterday.  Enclosed  find  Fifteen  ($15)  Dollars  in  payment  as  per 
your  bill  herein.     Please  acknowledge  and  oblige. 

"If  you  Avill  pay  your  note  for  $750  due  in  ten  days  which  we  hold  to-day,  we  will  discount 
Twenty-five  ($25)  Dollars  and  the  accrued  interest," 

states  that  we  hold  the  note  to-day,  and  that  we  will  discount  the  interest. 
Although  the  correspondent  may  have  no  difficulty  in  understanding  the  meaning, 
such  clumsy  expressions  should  never  be  used. 

Make  short  sentences,  as: 

"We  hold  your  note  for  Seven  Hundred  Fifty  Dollars  ($750)  due  in  ten  days.  If  you 
will  pay  it  to-day  wo  will  allow  you  a  discount  of  Twenty-five  Dollars  ($25)  and  the  accrued 
interest." 


3'2  CORRESPONDENCE. 

Or  change  the  order  of  statement,  as: 

"We  mil  allow  yon  a  discount  of  Twenty-five  Dollars  ($25)  and  the  accrued  interest  o 
your  note  Eor  Seven  Hundred  Fifty  Dollars  ($750),  due  in  ten  days,  which,  we  hold,  if  yo 
will  pay  it  to-day." 

It  is  \  ery  annoying  to  receive  letters  containing  such  ambiguous  statements.  The 
writer  knows  just  what  he  meant,  but  his  correspondent  may  not,  and  if  the  latter 
cannot  guess  at  the  meaning  with  tolerable  certainty,  lie  is  caused  the  trouble  and 
delay  of  writing  for  an  explanation.     Such  cases  occur  frequently. 

Courtesy. —  The  words  chosen  should  be  courteous  and  should  maintain  the 
degree  of  respect  due  the  party  addressed.  By  a  careless  or  thoughtless  use  of  even 
one  word,  it  is  easy  to  make  a  statement  very  abrupt,  if  not  actually  offensive. 

For  instance,  a  request  couched  in  such  terms  as  the  following  : 

Gents, — "Send  me  at  once  Cat.  of  your  Bus.  Coll.  and  oblige  etc." 

stamps  the  author  as  entirely  uninformed  or  utterly  regardless  of  the  usual  cour- 
tesies, and  in  this  enlightened  age  the  disposition  will  probably  be  to  favor  the  latter 
opinion.     Or  again  to  write: 

"When  you  are  ready  to  settle  your  account,  you  will  call  at  nry  office  and  I  will  look  it 
over  with  you." 

may  not  be  intended  to  be  imperious  in  its  tone,  but  the  use  of  the  wrords  "  You 
will"  make  it  liable  to  be  so  understood,  especially  when  it  may  be  so  easily  rem- 
edied by  saying  "please  call,"  or  "if  you  will  call." 

Choice  of  Words. — The  words  selected  for  business  letters  should  be  terse  and 
vigorous,  and  such  as  express  the  exact  meaning  in  as  brief  a  form  as  is  consistent 
with  clearness  and  courtesy,  avoiding  words  or  phrases  not  directly  concerning  the 
matters  treated  in  the  letter.  As  an  aid  to  directness  of  statement,  and  as  a  means 
of  avoiding  the  repetition  of  conjunctions,  pronouns,  etc.,  short  sentences  are 
recommended,  especially  if  the  writer  is  not  well  versed  in  the  use  of  infinitives  and 
participles. 

For  example  : 

Dear  Sir, — I  wish  you  would  send  me  a  copy  of  the  latest  edition  of  your  "Guide"  as  I  an) 
preparing  a  paper  on  Rose  Culture  and  I  expect  to  get  some  valuable  hints  from  yoiu*  book, 
and  my  paper  must  be  ready  by  the  12th  as  the  Convention  meets  on  the  20th,  and  all  the 
papers  must  be  in  the  hands  of  the  committee  not  later  than  the  15th,  so  I  hope  you  will  send 
the  "Guide"  at  once. 

Which  might  be  corrected  as  follows  : 

Dear  Sir, —  Please  send  me  at  once  a  copy  of  the  latest  edition  of  your  "Guide."  I  an 
preparing  a  paper  on  Rose  Culture,  to  be  read  at  the  Convention  which  meets  on  the  20th,  and 
I  expect  to  get  valuable  help  from  your  book.  All  papers  must  be  submitted  to  the  Com- 
mittee not  later  than  the  15th,  and,  to  enable  me  to  do  so,  mine  must  be  ready  by  the  12th. 

But  the  writer  Avould  be  more  likely  to  receive  a  prompt  reply  if  he  refrained  from 
troubling  the  publisher  with  information  of  no  interest  to  him,  and  simply  wrote: 

Dear  Sir, — Please  send  me  by  return  mail  a  copy  of  the  latest  edition  of  your  "Guide.'' 
if  it  does  not  reach  me  by  the  10th  inst.,  it  wrill  be  too  late. 


LETTEKS   ORDERING   GOODS.  33 


Business  Letters. 


LETTERS  ORDERING  GOODS. 

Letters  Ordering  Goods  should  carefully  specify  the  articles  wanted,  contain 
full  directions  for  shipping,  and  give  the  name  and  address  of  the  party  ordering,  so 
as  to  leave  no  possibility  of  a  mistake  in  filling  the  order.  The  uncertainty  which 
the  lack  of  proper  instructions  in  these  particulars  causes  shippers  is  very  annoying 
and  frequently  occasions  delay  and  loss.  If  goods  are  advertised  by  number,  or 
designated  in  any  way,  parties  ordering  should  be  careful  to  observe  and  follow  such 
instructions  in  every  particular. 

In  renewing  an  order,  the  directions  should  usually  be  as  explicit  as  if  it  were  the 
first.  Fo.r  instance,  to  say  :  "  Send  us  another  gross  same  as  our  last  order"  neces- 
sitates the  finding  of  the  last  order;  and  in  looking  it  up,  much  valuable  time  may 
be  lost,  possibly  delay  caused  in  filling  the  order  and  certainly  less  favorable  feeling 
will  be  entertained  towards  the  party  ordering ;  whereas,  if  be  had  written  his  order 
in  full,  very  little  more  time  would  have  been  required  on  his  part,  and  he  would 
have  been  more  than  compensated  for  the  extra  labor  by  avoiding  possible  delay, 
and  by  the  favorable  impression  his  business-like  and  careful  methods  would  create. 
It  should  be  remembered  that  it  is  always  much  easier  to  enter  an  order  from  an 
order  sheet  than  from  the  books  of  the  firm  filling  it. 

Acknowledging  Orders. — The  practice  of  acknowledging  all  orders  is  a  com- 
mendable one.  It  is  very  satisfactory  to  a  purchaser  to  receive  a  prompt  acknowledg- 
ment of  the  receipt  of  his  order,  and  the  assurance  that  it  is  receiving  attention, 
especially  where  the  articles  ordered  require  some  preparation  to  put  them  in  proper 
condition  for  shipment.  Even  if  the  goods  are  ready  and  the  order  can  be  filled  at 
once,  if  a  letter  of  acknowledgment  reach  the  customer  before  the  receipt  of  the 
goods,  the  favorable  effect  of  such  a  letter  will  be  worth  more  than  the  time  and 
labor  required  to  write  it. 

"With  many  firms  the  custom  is  to  acknowledge  an  order  by  sending  an  invoice, 
but  unless  the  invoice  states  the  date  or  probable  date  of  shipment,  the  purchaser 
is  left  in  a  state  of  uncertainty  and  suspense  not  by  any  means  desirable,  as  his 
customers  are  quite  apt  to  charge  him  with  a  delay,  for  which  the  shipper  or  the 
transportation  company  may  be  responsible. 

EXERCISES. 

1.  Observing  the  arrangement  of  the  specimen  letter  on  page  35,  write  a  letter 
and  address  an  envelope  to  J.  II.  Lansing,  Boston,  Mass.,  ordering,  by  American 
Express,  ten  copies  of  Watson's  Readers.  Numerals  are  usually  employed  in  orders, 
instead  of  writing  the  number  in  words,  as.  10  for  ten.  Sign  your  own  name  to  th« 
letter. 

3 


34  CORRESPONDENCE. 

8.  Write  a  Letter  and  envelope  to  Eugene  Sloeum,  Maiden,  Mass.,  ordering  foui 
Wire  Tooth  Rakes  and  seven  Corn  Cultivators,  to  be  shipped  by  freight. 

3.  Write  a  letter  and  envelope  addressed  to  P.  II.  Gardner,  Dayton,  0.,  ordering 
two  dozen  number  five  Ice  (ream  Freezers,  three  dozen  number  two  Dairy  Churns, 
and  one-half  dozen  number  one  Rotary  Tumps.  Numerals  and  abbreviations  should 
be  employed  as  follows: 

v  doz.  No.  5  Ice  Cream  Freezers. 
3     «      "    2  Dairy  Churns. 
i    "      "     1  Rotary  Pumps. 
When  the  kind  of  goods  ordered  is  so  well  understood  that  no  liability  to  error 
exists,  such  an  order  might  be  still  further  abbreviated,  as: 

2  doz.  No.  5  I.  C.  Freezers. 

3  "      "2  D.  Churns. 
|    "      "1  R.  Pumps. 

4.  Order  by  letter,  of  Ingham,  Black  &  Co.,  New  York,  24  Robinson's  Prac- 
tical Arithmetics,  list  price  75^;  12  Swinton's  Fourth  Readers,  list  $1.25;  6  Web- 
ster's High  School  Dictionaries,  list  $2.50;  and  12  gross  No.  1  Pens,  list  $1.10. 
You  receive  a  discount  of  10  and  5  per  cent,  from  the  list  prices.     Write  the  order. 

5.  Write  a  letter  to  F.  R.  Jameson  &  Co.,  Boston,  ordering  2  piece3  Black  Dress 
Silk,  3  pieces  Ponson  Silk,  2  pieces  Black  Dress  Velvet,  1  piece  Black  Trimming 
Velvet,  2  pieces  Black  Satin,  1  piece  Teillard  Silk,  and  2  pieces  C.  L.  Gingham. 

Request  that  the  goods  be  shipped  by  earliest  express.  The  greatest  care  should 
|be  taken  that  the  order  be  correctly  made. 

6.  Copy  the  following  letter,  giving  to  each  of  the  different  parts  its  proper 
position: 

Buffalo,  N.  Y.,  June  20,  1889.  Messrs.  Lemon,  Bache  &  Co.,  443  Greenwicn  St., 
New  York  City.  Gentlemen, —  Please  send  per  Merchants'  Dispatch,  N.  Y,  0.  & 
H.  R.  R.  R.,  original  boxes  (there  is  less  breakage  where  you  do  not  have  to  repack) 
4  cases  14  x  26  French  Plate  clear;  5  cases  12  x  24  French  Plate  clear;  18  cases  12  x 
22  French  Plate  clear.  The  4  cases  to  be  first  quality,  double  thick;  the  rest  second 
quality,  single  thick.  We  prefer  you  would  not  draw  on  us,  as  we  will  remit  at 
maturity  (four  months  from  date  of  bill)  or  add  interest  if  we  do  not.  Yours  truly, 
The  Standard  Chem.  Co.  per  (your  own  name). 

7.  Write  a  letter  ordering  three  different  articles,  giving  shipping  directions,  and 
state  when  and  how  you  will  make  payment. 

8.  Write  a  letter  to  White  Star  Oil  Co.,  Olean,  ordering  the  following  goods,  if 
they  will  furnish  them  at  prices  you  quote.  Instruct  them  not  to  forward  goods 
unless  they  will  warrant  that  you  will  receive  them  within  twenty  days.  Also  instruct 
them  to  ship  C.  O.  D.,  if  they  prefer,  or  you  will  remit  upon  receipt  of  goods,  if  they 
allow  you  the  usual  two  per  cent,  off  for  cash.  2000  Gallons  White  Neutral,  16 
cts.,  F.  O.  B.,  Olean.     600  Gallons  Filtered  Neutral,  17  cts.,  F.  O.  B.,  Olean. 


LETTERS    ORDERING    GOODS. 


35 


/         / 


30 


CORRESPONDENCE. 


LETT K US   CONTAINING  INCLOSUKES. 


A  Letter  Containing  an  Inclosure  should  explain  what  the  inclosure  is,  and  if 
it  be  a  remittance,  should  state  I  lie  amount  and  whether  it  is  a  note,  draft,  check,  or 
money  order,  also  how  it-  is  to  be  applied.  The  letter  of  reply  should  acknowledge 
receipt,  and  if  the  remittance  has  been  made  in  payment  of  an  account,  or  a  note, 
should  inclose  the  bill  receipted  or  the  note  cancelled. 

The  inclosure  in  either  case,  especially  when  in  the  form  of  a  note,  draft,  or  check, 
should  be  folded  within  the  letter,  as  shown  in  the  accompanying  diagram.  It  should 
not  be  placed  within  t  he  envelope  separately,  as  it  is  liable  to  be  cut  or  torn  when  the 
letter  is  being  opened,  or  to  remain  within  the  envelope  after  the  letter  is  removed, 
causing  delay  and  inconvenience,  and  sometimes  loss. 

DIAGRAM    OF    LETTER    WITH    INCLOSURE. 


Promptness. — A  very  important  factor  in  correspondence  is  the  promptness 
with  which  letters  requiring  reply  are  answered.  This  is  true  of  all  correspondence, 
social  or  business,  but  in  no  class  of  letters  is  promptness  more  desirable  than  in 
letters  acknowledging  remittances.  The  correspondent  who  sends  a  remittance  by 
mail  knows  about  how  long  it  will  take  his  letter  to  reach  its  destination  and  when 
he  should  receive  an  acknowledgment  of  its  receipt,  and  if  even  a  day  longer  than 
the  necessary  time  elapses,  he  does  not  fail  to  note  the  delay,  though  he  may  not 
think  of  mentioning  it;  and  on  the  other  hand  he  is  just  as  sure  to  note  the  prompt- 
ness of  parties  who  systematically  acknowledge  all  remittances  on  the  date  of  their 
receipt.  The  man  also  who  always  remits  promptly  is  sure  to  please  his  corre- 
spondents, and  they  will  invariably  be  found  ready  to  overlook  any  defects  in  his 
letters,  or  to  extend  him  favors,  although,  it  may  be  added,  such  a  man  is  usually  the 
last  to  find  it  necessary  to  ask  for  favors. 


LETTERS   CONTAINING   INCLOSURES. 


37 


There  is  great  diversity  of  practice  among  business  letter-writers  in  the  ctse  of 
capital  letters  in  expressing  an  amount  of  money  in  a  letter,  as  well  as  in  such 
commercial  documents  as  notes,  drafts,  and  checks.  It  is  believed,  however,  that 
the  custom  prevailing  with  those  whose  opinion  and  example  naturally  command 
the  greatest  respect,  is  to  capitalize  every  word,  unless  the  amounts  be  very  long, 
and  write  the  cents  as  a  fractional  part  of  a  dollar ;  as,  Nine  Hundred  Sixty-one 
and  fVo  Dollars.  In  writing  a  letter  it  is  also  a  common  and  commendable  practice 
to  repeat  the  amount  in  numerals,  in  parenthesis,  after  writing  the  amount  in  words, 
thus:  Four  Hundred  Forty  Dollars  (1440). 


LETTER    INCLOSING    REMITTANCE. 


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NEW   YORK    DRAFT. 


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C0HKKS1'0NDKN"CE. 


EXERCISES. 

1.  Write  a  letter  to  James  D.  Johnson,  Dickinson,  Cal.,  informing  him  that  you 
have  effected  a  lease  of  his  farm  for  a  yearly  cash  rental  of  $G00,  to  William  B. 
Hovey,  whom  you  know  to  be  a  capable  and  reliable  man.  Inclose  a  draft  on  New 
York  for  the  amount  of  the  first  quarter's  rent,  less  your  commission  of  two  per 
cent.,  $12,  for  transacting  the  business.     Write  the  draft  as  well  as  the  letter. 

2.  Write  a  letter  to  Harper  &  Brothers,  Franklin  Square,  New  York,  inclosing 
an  American  Express  money  order  for  Four  Dollars,  for  Harper's  Magazine  for  one 
year,  saying  that  you  desire  the  subscription  to  begin  with  the  first  number  of  the 
present  volume. 

3.  Write  the  letter  that  should  accompany  a  remittance  of  a  check  for  Three 
Hundred  Dollars  and  a  note  at  thirty  days  for  Two  Hundred  Dollars  on  account. 

4.  Write  a  letter  to  Benton  &  Brown  accompanying  the  proceeds  of  the  sales  of 
Consignment  No.  4.  Eemittance  sent  by  a  New  York  draft.  Amount  of  draft 
Nine  Hundred  Sixty-eight  Dollars.     Thank  them  for  favor,  etc. 

5.  Write  a  letter  to  Warren  L.  Morrison,  Dover,  Miss.,  inclosing  a  draft  drawn 
by  the  First  National  Bank  of  your  place  upon  the  Chemical  National  Bank  of  New 
York  for  £300.00,  in  settlement  of  account.  Write  the  draft  made  to  your  order 
and  indorsed  by  you  to  Warren  L.  Morrison.     See  illustration  below. 

DRAFT   SHOWING   INDORSEMENT. 


The  advantage  in  having  a. draft  sent  as  a  remittance  made  payable  to  your  order 
is  that,  by  indorsing  it  payable  to  Morrison's  order,  he  will  also  be  required  to  indorse 
it  before  he  can  either  collect  or  negotiate  it,  and  his  indorsement  shows  that  he 
has  received  from  you  the  amount  of  money  covered  by  the  document.  In  the 
absence  of  any  other  acknowledgment  of  the  remittance,  this  draft,  which  may  be 
procured  within  any  reasonable  time  from  the  bank  by  which  it  was  drawn,  is  the 
very  best  evidence  of  payment. 

A  draft  or  check  used  for  the  purpose  of  making  a  remittance  by  mail  should 
never  be  made  payable  to  bearer,  either  on  its  face  or  by  blank  indorsement,  as  such 
paper,  in  the  hands  of  dishonest  persons,  is  much  easier  to  negotiate  than  if  payable 
to  order. 


LETTERS    CONTAINING    INCLOSURES. 


39 


6.  Write  a  letter  to  J.  W.  Fleming  &  Co.,  93  Great  James  Street,  Toronto,  Ont., 
inclosing  yonr  check  on  the  Fifth  National  Bank  of  your  place  for  $961,45,  the 
amount  of  your  note  of  $900  and  interest,  in  their  favor.  Write  the  check  as  well 
as  the  letter. 

7.  Write  a  letter  to  Byron  N.  Sherman,  Geneseo,  111.,  inclosing  your  note  for 
$596.73,  on  account,  at  three  months  from  date,  payable  at  Baldwin  &  Co.'s  Bank. 
See  form  of  note  below. 

PROMISSORY    NOTE. 


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Rochester,  N.  Y.,j2L6r^/;  iss^ 


'AFTER  DATE^^PROMISE  TO  RAY 
TO  THE  ORDER  OF _ ^Jt^E^^Z^^  . 


Value  received 

N6.    ~3 f".  DUE 


^V-  ^^^^^Jj?*?/ 


8.  Write  a  letter  to  Brown,  Taylor  &  Co.,  110  Beacon  St.,  Boston,  Mass.,  inclos- 
ing One  Dollar  in  currency,  for  1  copy  of  "Eminent  Americans,"  by  James  Hart, 
cloth,  240  pp. 

Ingham,  Black  &  Co.  send  you  a  statement  of  account,  of  which  the  following  is  a 
copy: 

STATEMENT. 


',.     fc^/ ■Zwizvri.'l, 


w  (^/via:,     J4^  ■/,   -/(frfO1. 


|n  nttmnt  wii\  INGHAM,  BLACK  &  CO., 


Terms,  30  dans 


GDUGATIONALi    E?UBLiI  sheiks. 


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9.  "Write  a  letter  to  Ingham,  Black  &  Co.,  inclosing  a  draft  on  Third  National 
Rank,  New  York,  for  the  amount  of  the  foregoing  statement.  See  form  of  draft 
on  page  oT.  Acknowledge  in  the  letter  the  receipt  of  a  circular  describing  their 
Silverine  Ten,  and  inquire  as  to  its  merits  compared  with  the  No.  1. 

10.  You  receive  a  letter  from  Ingham,  Black  &  Co.,  acknowledging  receipt  of 
your  draft  and  explaining  that  the  Silverine  Pen  is  somewhat  more  flexible  than  the 
No.  1.  and  (hat  it  is  regarded  as  more  durable,  being  less  susceptible  to  the  corrosive 
properties  of  ink.     "Write  the  letter  of  Ingham,  Black  &  Co. 

An  Invoice  is  a  written  statement  in  detail  of  articles  sold.  It  should  state  the 
date  of  the  sale,  the  names  of  the  buyer  and  seller,  the  terms  of  credit,  the  name, 
quantity  and  price  of  the  articles,  and  the  total  amount.  The  invoice  is  said  to  be 
receipted  when  the  words  "  Received  payment,"  or  the  word  "  Paid,"  and  the  seller's 
signature  have  been  written  at  the  bottom. 

Copy  the  following  invoice,  exercising  the  utmost  care  in  penmanship,  figures, 
and  arrangement. 

INVOICE   OF   GOODS. 


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11.  It  is  not  customary  for  a  letter  to  accompany  an  invoice,  unless  some  deviation 
has  been  made  from  the  order.  Assuming  that  the  Ponson  Silk,  included  in  the 
order,  is  of  a  little  better  grade  than  Austin  &  Son  have  purchased  before,  and  costs 
twenty-five  cents  more  per  yard,  you  will  write  a  letter  to  accompany  the  invoice, 
explaining  these  facts,  and  expressing  the  hope  that  the  goods  will  prove  satisfactory 
The  letter  should  be  signed  F.  R.  Jameson  &  Co.  per  (your  own  name.) 


LETTERS   CONTAINING    INCLOSURES.  4] 

Acknowledgments  are  frequently  made  by  filling  out  printed  blanks  similar  io  the 

following: 


ACKNOWLEDGMENT. 


Ingham,  Black  &  Co., 

PUBUSHEKS  OF 


New  York,  JlwtL   Q,    \&Bf. 


Dear  Sir,— 

Your   favor   Df  tb.B    o  a<     Is   racaivsd,  with 


33 


incloBure    as  stated,     Cs/a^^.-^t*    -emr/  \ko    Dollars, 

far   whl<sh   accBpt   our   thanks, 

Youra  respectfully, 

INGHAM,  HULCK  &  CD, 


REMARK9: 


42  CORRESPONDENCE. 


LETTER    REQUESTING   A    SPECIAL   FAVOR. 


Cll^^^ifz-^^ 


V  .  ,6  ; (SW^S^KjOWz/ 


'to. 


a^z^'  \30.s£ru^*t<££<£(,  ^^^n^^z^^^^u^d^^i^d^  ^tmz-ts 'O^rz^c^Zi/-  a^z<^ 
^ua^ '^yT^t^rzS '  s2fm<t/  *<&z^&  ^ind^J^t^ptZs  ^Z^z^  ^64^U4<w^<dZa^^d/ 

LETTERS  REQUESTING   SPECIAL  FAVORS. 

A.  letter  making  a  request  of  any  kind  should  approach  the  subject  in  a  direct 
manner.  The  nature  of  the  request  should  usually  be  stated  at  the  outset,  and  if 
any  explanation  of  the  circumstances  which  occasioned  it  is  needed,  let  such  explan- 
ation follow,  and  be  brief  and  to  the  point. 

If  it  should  become  necessary  to  write  a  letter  asking  for  a  remittance  on  an 
account  not  yet  due;  for  the  privilege  of  drawing  on  a  prompt-paying  customer 


LETTEKS   REQUESTING   SPECIAL  FAVORS.  43 

earlier  than  the  usual  time;  for  an  extension  of  time  on  an  account  or  other  obliga- 
tion, or  for  an  unusual  favor  of  any  kind,  special  care  should  be  exercised  in  the 
manner  of  presenting  the  request. 

The  wording  of  such  a  letter  might  easily  be  such  as  to  strain  business  relations, 
even  though  there  be  nothing  unreasonable  or  unbusiness-like  in  the  nature  of  the 
request.  The  tone  of  such  letters  is  governed  by  the  urgency  of  the  case,  and  the 
prominence  the  writer  considers  it  prudent  to  give  to  any  sense  of  obligation  he  may 
be  conscious  of  as  due  himself  or  his  correspondent,  and  for  these  reasons  it  will  be 
impossible  to  submit  a  specimen  that  will  serve  as  an  absolute  guide.  But  it  is 
believed  that  a  study  of  the  foregoing  letter,  and  of  the  circumstances  causing  it,  will 
furnish  a  fair  idea  of  how  to  proceed  in  writing  letters  embodying  similar  requests. 

EXERCISES. 

1.  Make  an  exact  copy  of  the  engraved  letter  on  preceding  page. 
Write  letters  asking  for  remittances  assigning  the  following  reasons  : 

2.  Because  some  of  your  customers,  who  are  usually  prompt  pay,  are  delinquent 
and  have  disappointed  you. 

3.  Because  of  a  prolonged  strike  of  employees,  retarding  business. 

4.  -Because  of  an  epidemic,  as  the  yellow  fever,  prostrating  trade. 

5.  Because  of  the  unexpected  failure  of  one  of  your  principal  patrons,  who  has 
made  an  assignment,  from  which  you  shall  not  be  able  to  realize  more  than  25^  on 
the  dollar. 

6.  Write  answers  to  Nos.  2  and  5,  stating  in  each  case  that  you  would  be  glad 
to  comply  with  the  request,  but  that  you  are  unable  to  do  so,  for  reasons  similar  to 
those  stated  in  your  correspondent's  letter. 

7.  Write  replies  to  Nos.  3  and  4,  inclosing  New  York  exchange  for  one-half 
the  amount  of  your'account,  and  stating  that,  if  business  holds  out  as  you  expect, 
you  will  be  glad  to  remit  the  balance  in  thirty  days. 

8.  Write  a  letter  to  J.  W.  Cogswell  &  Co.,  Albany,  N.  Y.,  asking  an  extension 
of  time,  sixty  days,  on  one-half  of  your  account  of  four  hundred  twenty  dollars  duo 
the  10th  inst.  Say  just  when  and  how  you  will  pay,  if  they  will  be  so  kind  as  to 
grant  your  request. 

9.  Write  a  reply  to  the  above,  granting  the  request  willingly,  on  account  of  pre- 
vious prompt  payments,  referring  to  other  favors,  with  assurances  of  perfect  confi- 
dence in  the  ability  and  disposition  of  the  writer  to  pay  his  accounts. 

10.  Write  a  reply  to  No.  8,  declining  to  grant  request,  but  reluctantly  offering 
to  extend  the  time  thirty  days  on  one-half  the  account,  with  the  positive  under- 
standing that  it  be  paid  at  that  time. 

11.  Write  a  letter  in  answer  to  engraved  letter  of  Foster,  Manning  &  Co.,  shown 
on  page  42 .  Grant  the  request,  asking  them  not  to  draw,  and  saying  that  the  amount 
called  for  will  be  sent  by  New  York  draft  in  next  mail. 

12.  Write  a  letter  in  answer  to  letter  of  Foster,  Manning  &  Co.,  saying  you  can* 
not  grant  the  request.     Give  reasons  for  your  action. 


II  CORRESPONDENCE. 

LETTERS   OP  INTRODUCTION. 

A  Letter  of  Introduction,  in  which  ;i  person  simply  introduces  one  business 
acquaintance  bo  another,  does  not  require  any  words  of  commendation;  the  fact  that 
the  letter  is  given  is  usually  considered  as  an  indorsement  of  the  bearer,  and  the 
greatest  caution  should  therefore  be  exercised  that  the  person  introduced  be  one  who 
can  safely  be  indorsed. 

Letters  of  introduction  should  not  be  sealed,  for  the  party  introduced  has  a  right 
to  know  what  the  letter  contains. 

The  following-  is  a  proper  form  of  a  letter  of  introduction  : 

Mr.  J.  A.  St.  Clair,  Trot,  N.  Y.,  Aug.  23,  1889. 

lit  Adams  Street, 
Joliet,  HI. 
/>< ■-((>•  Sir, — This  will  introduce  to  you  my  friend,  Mr.  J.  S.  Brim,  who  represents  the  Hall 
"Manufacturing  Co.,  Avell  known  to  you  as  leading  casket  builders,  and  who  intend  to  erect  a 
warehouse  in  your  city, 

Any  assistance  you  may  render  Mr.  Brim  in  his  search  for  a  site  will  he  greatly  appreciated 
by  me.  Yours  very  respectfully, 

A.  B.  Cantteld. 

EXERCISES. 

1.  "Write  a  letter  to  Mr.  L.  TV.  Craig,  1414  Troost  Ave.,  Kansas  City,  Mo., 
introducing  your  friend  Mr.  David  C.  Glass,  who  is  looking  for  a  place  to  locate  in 
business  there. 

2.  Write  a  letter  to  Mr.  James  P.  "Willis,  Secretary  of  the  Board  of  Trade. 
Fremont,  Nebr.,  introducing  your  friend  Dr.  "W.  J.  Howe,  a  recent  graduate  of 
Bellevue  Medical  College,  New  York,  who  has  commenced  to  practice  medicine  in 
his  city. 


LETTERS  OF  INDORSEMENT. 

A  communication  introducing  a  business  acquaintance,  who  wishes  to  open  trade 
with  the  party  addressed,  should  be  very  guardedly  worded.  It  is  very  easy  for  the 
writer  to  incur  a  moral  obligation  to  perform  agreements  made  by  a  bearer  of  such  a 
letter,  if,  indeed,  he  does  not  become  legally  liable.  If  the  person  requesting  such 
a  letter  is  known  to  be  financially  responsible,  and  a  man  of  irreproachable  character 
and  business  ability,  but  little  risk  of  any  kind  is  assumed  ;  but,  unless  he  is  known 
to  possess  such  qualities,  the  letter  had  better  be  withheld. 

Letters  of  indorsement  should  not  be  sealed  if  given  to  "  bearer." 

The  following  is  a  safe  and  proper  form: 

Office  of 

BILLINGS,  MONTGOMEBY  &  CO., 

pHrLADEiiPHiA,  Pa.,  June  16,  1889. 
James  C.  Morse  &  Co., 
Meriden,  Ct. 
Gentlemen, — The  bearer,  Mr.  Bobert  C.  Springer,  is  preparing  to  engage  in  a  genera] 
hardware  and  house  furnishing  goods  trade,  in  Duluth,  Minn. ,  and  visits  you  for  the  purpose 
of  examining  your  stock  of  pressed  and  plated  ware. 

Intimate  acquaintance  with  Mr.  Springer's  energy  and  business  ability,  as  well  as  knowl- 
edge of  the  excellent  field  for  trade  in  which  he  is  about  to  locate,  convinces  us  that  you  will 
"find  it  profitable  to  extend  him  every  reasonable  courtesy. 

Yery  respectfully  yours, 

Billings,  Montgomery  &  Co. 


LETTERS    OF    RECOMMENDATION.  45 

EXERCISES. 

1.  Write  a  letter  to  W.  H.  Gould  &  Sons,  wholesale  dealers  in  crockery  and 
china  ware,  Providence,  R.  I.,  introducing  Mr.  Charles  J.  Hunter,  who  intends  to 
carry  a  line  of  their  goods  in  addition  to  his  present  stock  of  groceries.  Refer  to 
Mr.  Hunter's  career  as  a  merchant,  and  mention  reasons  for  your  confidence  in  him. 

2.  Write  a  letter  to  the  manager  of  the  Great  Western  Type  Foundry.  Chicago, 
111.,  introducing  your  friend  Mr.  James  H.  Fields,  who  has  been  connected  with 
the  "  Morning  Herald  "  of  your  city  for  several  years,  and  is  about  to  open  a  general 
printing  establishment  in  Helena,  Mont. 

LETTERS   OF  RECOMMENDATION. 

The  utmost  caution  should  be  exercised  in  the  preparation  of  a  letter  of  recom- 
mendation. While  the  natural  impulse  of  every  kind-hearted  person  is  to  write  such 
a  letter  when  called  upon,  especially  by  one  in  whom  he  feels  interested,  and  the 
temptation  is  often  strong  to  give  the  virtues  of  the  applicant  all  the  prominence 
warranted  by  fact,  and  to  ignore  his  weaknesses,  it  should  be  borne  in  mind  that 
such  a  transaction  may  have  a  wider  significance  than  was  intended.  The  applicant 
might  be  intrusted  with  duties  or  responsibilities,  upon  the  strength  of  such  a  letter, 
which  the  writer  (fid  not  suppose  were  within  his  reach,  and  the  person  or  firm 
engaging  him  might  be  subjected  to  great  inconvenience  or  loss  through  his  incom- 
petency or  dishonesty.  Thus  the  applicant,  instead  of  having  been  benefited,  as 
the  writer  hoped,  would  be  disgraced,  and  the  writer's  reputation  for  good  judgment, 
ami  perhaps  for  veracity,  would  be  lost. 

If  the  applicant  for  such  a  letter  merits  commendation,  it  should  never  be  with- 
held ;  but  it  should  never  state  more  than  the  most  conservative  man  into  whose 
hands  it  may  fall  will  find  amply  justified.  If  a  letter  of  recommendation  is  to  be 
delivered  by  the  party  recommended,  it  should  not  be  sealed.  The  engraved  letter 
of  recommendation  on  next  page  is  believed  to  be  in  good  taste  and  form. 

EXERCISES. 

1.  Make  an  exact  copy  of  the  engraved  letter  of  M.  E.  Keeler  on  page  4''.. 

2.  Write  the  letter  of  J.  B.  West,  Son  &  Co.  to  M.  E.  Keeler,  making  inquiry 
regarding  Henry  Will.  Write  the  letter  in  such  form  as  will  make  the  answer  of 
M.  E.  Keeler  appeal-  complete  mid  consistent  as  a  reply. 

:;.  Wd-if  a  letter  to  John  II.  White  &  Co.,  Newton.  la.,  commending  William 
II.  Browning,  who  has  been  in  your  service  during  the  last  two  years,  and  who  has 
proved  himself  a  thoroughly  competent  book-keeper  and  correspondent,  as  well  as  a 
man  of  excellent  business  judgment.  He  leaves  you  owing  to  a  change  in  the  pro- 
prietorship of  your  business. 

4.  Write  a  letter  to  your  former  employer,  Mr.  John  II.  Crane.  Lewiston,  Me., 
asking  For  a  letter  covering  your  connection  with  his  business,  and  requesting  him 
to  speak,  if  possible,  particularly  of  your  application  to  duty,  and  your  ability  as  a 
salesman. 

."».     Assuming  thai  a  reply  has  been  received  from  Mr.  Crane,  inclosing  a  satisfac- 
tory letter  of  recommendation,  you  will  write  a  letter  to  him  in   reply,  express 
your  appreciation  of  his  kindness. 

6.  Yon  will  also  write  the  letter  which  you  are  supposed  f<>  have  received  from 
Mr.  Crane. 


46  CORRESPONDENCE. 


^l^Z^c^C^yl/  y^>  ^rl^y  J2,2sfiy   ^^1<4k    yU^z^stZ^yz^z 

•zust^-  ^u/zzJy ^^yeJzy  tz<dy  'sfo-~  ^a^yyzy  ^Ji^iy '^ri^y^ny  ^t&Lg/ 
A^d^i^t^r-  tzyyz^zy \^*<in^J^^^  ^u^Airyyiy  ^yi^y 

^&4zyyyz^  ^yyzy  ^^ryU^zs^f.  Schs  ^Ji^y  a^fl^yz^liryzy  ^^ . 
t^i^t/i  a^yz^  ^J-tn^&y  aJ-cy  ^Jiv  --yzyyiy ^jM^c^y  ^ytXl^A^yfz/t 
^wvyz/  /rrzyzf  ^Ji^^zJ^^y  ^<d£^yyz/.  Dyyiy  a^^^z^yiyy'  ^zj^  ^z^iy'- 
^yyzrf  ^JL^zJ^ny  -JL^y  ^u^zzJy  ^^zy^zj^zy  ^yy2^^&Jiy^^^yiy'  yi^^tl^y 
*4&  AdJ^a^T/  ^yt^dy  y^thdy^ytryiy 


"J* 

^e^yz^t 


yi^yPzJ '  yt^jA^z^iiJ^, 


BETTERS   OF   APPLICATION".  4? 

Open  Letters  of  Recommendation  are  such  as  are  intended  as  passports  to 
the  business  circles  in  which  the  writers  move.  They  are  usually  addressed:  To  the 
Public;  To  the  Business  Community;  or,  To  Whom  it  may  Concern;  as: 

Office  of  the 

BIRMINGHAM  ROLLING  MILL, 

Birmingham,  Ala.,  June  18,  1889. 
To  Whom   it  may  Concern, — 

This  is  to  certify  that  the  bearer,  Mr.  John  D.  Cone,  has  served  this  company  during  the 
last  year  in  the  capacity  of  book-keeper,  and  that  he  has  been  found  capable,  faithful  and 
honest.     He  leaves  us  by  the  advice  of  his  physician,  to  engage  in  more  active  employment. 
Cordiallv  commending  him  to  public  favor  and  individual  confidence,  we  are 

Respectfully, 

Birmingham  Rolling  Mill, 

per  Robt.  H.  Carman,  Sec'y. 

EXERCISES. 

1.  "Write  a  letter  recommending  Miss  Jennie  E.  Wilder,  who  has  superintended 
the  millinery  department  of  your  dry  goods  establishment  for  several  years,  and  who 
has  been  found  very  faithful  and  efficient.  Mention  your  regret  at  Miss  Wilder's 
decision  to  leave,  anfl  state  her  reasons  for  doing  so. 

2.  Write  a  letter  of  recommendation  for  Mr.  Johnson  L.  Hibbard,  who  has  very 
acceptably  occupied  the  position  of  foreman  in  your  wheel  works  for  some  time. 
State  that  you  would  be  glad  to  retain  him  in  your  service,  but  that  he  has  decided 
to  go  west. 

LETTERS  OF  APPLICATION. 

A  Letter  of  Application  should  be  written  with  the  utmost  care  and  precision. 
The  writer  should  subject  every  portion  of  his  letter  to  the  closest  scrutiny  before 
allowing  it  to  pass  out  of  his  hands,  bearing  in  mind  that  the  experienced  eye  of 
the  business  man  will,  detect  the  slightest  error,  and  that  he  will  not  only  judge 
of  its  merits  as  a  mechanical  production,  but  will  quickly  form  his  estimate  of  its 
author.  If  the  letter  is  characterized  by  assurance  or  boastfulness,  it  is  not  likely 
to  be  regarded  with  favor;  and  again,  if  the  writer  speaks  very  timidly  or  diffidently 
regarding  his  qualifications  it  is  liable  to  tell  against  him,  as  indicating  a  lack  of 
push  and  energy. 

The  following  suggestions  regarding  the  writing  of  letters  of  application  are 
offered : 

Write  your  letter  of  application  yourself,  and  do  not  apply  for  a  position  you 
have  doubts  about  your  ability  to  fill. 

Write  respectfully  and  modestly,  but  frankly,  stating  your  qualifications,  without 
either  boasting  or  cringing. 

Be  sure  that  the  form  of  the  letter,  the  grammatical  construction  of  the  sen- 
tences, the  punctuation,  spelling,  and  use  of  capitals,  are  correct. 

Let  the  writing  be  neat  and  legible,  and  the  letter  be  absolutely  free  from  blots, 
erasures,  and  interlineations,  even  if  you  are  caused  to  rewrite  it  over  and  over. 

If,  as  is  sometimes  the  case,  a  party  making  a  personal  application  is  requested  to 
write  a  letter  of  application  then  and  there,  he  must  simply  do  his  best  to  keep  hi? 
thoughts  collected,  and  put  into  practice,  as  f;>r  as  possible,  the  suggestions  offered 


48  (  OKKKSl>ONl)KNCe>. 

A  letter  of  application,  in  reply  to  an  advertisement,  should  state  wnen  and  where 
the  advertisement  was  seen,  should  make  application  for  the  position  advertised, 
and  should  answer  all  the  requirements  called  for. 

The  tendency  is  common,  among  fresh  graduates  of  schools  and  institutions  of  all 
kinds,  to  make  the  fact  of  their  graduation  their  sole  recommendation  in  applying 
for  any  position.  The  fact  is,  every  school  inevitably  graduates  some  who  just  man- 
age, by  hook  or  crook,  to  get  through,  and  these  are  the  ones  who  go  up  and  down 
the  land  nourishing  their  diplomas  and  demanding  that  the  business  world  recognize 
them.  A  diploma  from  a  good  school  is  a  good  thing  and  a  life-long  satisfaction, 
but  business  men  are  apt  to  pass  by  a  young  man  who  depends  too  much  upon  a 
diploma  as  an  evidence  of  what  he  can  do. 

EXERCISES. 

Write  answers  to  the  following  genuine  newspaper  advertisements: 

1.  "ITT ANTED. — A  young  man  to  assist  in  office  and  who  is  competent  to 

VV    keep  books.     Address,  H.  C.  G.,  Letter  Carrier  4. 

2.  TIT  ANTED. — Bright,   intelligent  boy,  for  office;  must  write  a  good 

W    hand  and  figure  correctly.     Wages  $9.     Address,  with  references, 
Post  Office  Box  1526. 

3.  TIT  ANTED. — A  young  lady  stenographer  who  understands  bookkeep- 

VV    ing.     Address,  in  own  handwriting,  G.  C.  H.,  Letter  Carrier  6. 

4.  T300K-KEEPER  AND  CORRESPONDENT.  —  Wanted,  a  book- 
ie keeper,  competent  to  keep  the  accounts,  and  assist  in  conducting 
the  correspondence  of  an  establishment.  Address,  stating  experience 
and  giving  references,  "  Business,"  care  of  this  office. 

5.  ITT  ANTED. — A  young  man  18  or  19  years  of  age,  to  act  as  billing 

VV    clerk.     Must  write  a  good  hand.     Address,  giving  references  and 
experience,  Drawer  206. 

6.  Write  a  letter  to  Hogg,  Brown  &  Taylor,  Boston,  Mass.,  applying  for  a  position 
in  their  office,  saying  you  have  heard  there  would  be  a  vacancy  soon.  Give  references 
and  state  experience. 

7„  Write  to  the  chairman  of  the  Board  of  Education,  Nunda,  111.,  applying  for 
the  position  of  principal  of  the  public  schools  of  that  place.  State  what  experience 
you  have  had  in  teaching,  what  grade  of  certificate  you  hold,  what  reference  you 
can  give,  etc. 

8.  Make  application,  by  letter,  for  a  position  as  traveling  salesman  for  the  Johnson 
Manufacturing  Co.,  Jersey  City,  N.  J.  Give  references,  state  experience  and  what 
territory  you  are  familiar  with,  and  ask  for  a  personal  interview. 

9.  Write  a  letter  applying  for  position  as  first  mate  on  lake  steamer  Ben  Hur. 
Address  letter  to  Union  Steam  boat  Co.,  Chicago,  111.,  giving  such  particulars  as 
would  be  likely  to  be  required. 

10.  Apply  for  position  as  manager  of  millinery  department  of  Smith  Bros.,  & 
Smith's  dry  goods  store.     Give  such  particulars  as  would  usually  be  required. 

11.  Apply  for  a  position  as  cashier  for  J.  H.  Bonny  &  Go's  clothing  house. 

12.  Apply  for  a  position  as  teacher  in  a  commercial  college.  Say  what  branch 
you  think  you  are  best  qualified  to  teach  and  the  one  in  which  you  are  most  deficient. 

13.  Write  a  letter  applying  for  some  position  you  would  like  to  obtain. 


PEKPLEXIKG   BUSINESS   LETTEKS.  49 

PERPLEXING  BUSINESS  LETTERS. 

The  business  man  is  frequently  confronted  by  circumstances  tbat  make  the  writ- 
ing of  explanatory  letters  a  very  difficult  task;  and  perhaps  the  most  perplexing  ones 
to  write  are  those  regarding  complaints  or  misunderstandings,  in  which  it  may 
become  necessary  to  conciliate  or  censure  persons  whose  business  and  good  will  it  is 
desired  to  retain.  Misunderstandings  sometimes  arise  in  business,  and  careful 
treatment  of  disputed  points  at  the  critical  time  may  effectually  avert  difficulties 
which  another  course  might  precipitate.  The  complications  that  may  arise  in  any 
business  are  peculiar  to  itself,  and  no  correspondent  is  competent  to  deal  with  them 
until  he  has  acquired  a  good  knowledge  of  the  business,  and  of  the  parties  with 
whom  he  is  dealing.  Sometimes,  though  rarely,  a  man  may  be  subjected  to  so 
much  trouble  and  annoyance  by  the  unbusiness-like  methods  of  another,  that  he 
ceases  to  care  whether  business  relations  are  sustained  or  not,  and  writes  very  point- 
edly; this  could  not  excuse  or  justify  him,  however,  in  descending  to  write  anything 
discourteous. 

Dunning  Letters. — The  composition  of  an  effective  dunning  letter  is  many 
times  a  very  ]:>erplexi»g  task,  and  requires  much  skill.  Such  a  letter,  to  be  perfect 
in  its  wording,  must  not  only  obtain  the  money  due,  but  accomplish  this,  if  possible, 
without  offending  the  delinquent  debtor.  As  a  rule  such  letters  should  not  be 
abrupt  or  blunt,  but  should  courteously  and  clearly  state  the  circumstances  and  give 
the  best  existing  reasons  for  the  request,  and  especially  should  not  be  dictatorial  or 
imperious  in  tone.  If  it  become  necessary  to  suggest  the  using  of  forcible  meas- 
ures, this  suggestion  should  usually  be  put  in  such  form  as  will  not  be  construed  as 
a  threat  but  rather  a  reluctant  act  that  the  force  of  unavoidable  circumstances 
necessitates. 

Letters  of  Censure.— Letters  of  censure  should  always  be  written  with  care, 
that  they  may  accomplish  their  purpose  without  giving  undue  offense.  Such  letters 
should  never  be  written  without  abundant  provocation  and  unless  they  are  likely  to 
accomplish  some  desirable  purpose. 

The  following  letter,  to  an  agent  who  has  exceeded  his  instructions,  is  an  illustra- 
tion of  this  class  of  letters: 

Secretary's  Office, 

Pittsburgh,  Pa.,  Aug.  13,  1889. 
Mr.  J.  H.  Bartram, 

Brooklyn,  N.  Y. 
Dear  Sir, — Acting  upon  advice  from  the  Company,  I  write  this  letter  to  call  your  attention 
to  rules  4  and  5  of  our  "Instructions  to  Managers."  While  the  Company  recognizes  and 
duly  appreciates  ambition  on  the  part  of  its  agents  looking  to  the  legitimate  building  up  of 
its  business,  yet  it  objects  most  emphatically  to  their  pursuing  any  policy  other  than  that 
prescribed  in  its  rules,  even  though  a  temporary  gain  may  result  therefrom. 

Such  a  course,  -we  regret  to  note,  is  still  being  followed  in  your  office,  in  violation  of  the 
spirit  and  letter  of  the  rules  above  quoted.  After  we  had  once  signified  our  disapproval  of 
this  course,  which  you  will  find  in  our  letter  to  you  under  date  of  May  15,  we  had  hoped  that 
we  shoiUd  not  have  occasion  to  refer  to  the  matter  again,  especially  in  view  of  your  otherwise 
faithful  and  satisfactory  services.  But  in  this  we  have  been  disappointed,  and  I  am  now 
authorized  to  notify  you  that  if  your  methods  in  the  future  conduct  of  our  business  in  your 
office  do  not  conform  to  our  wishes,  as  expressed  in  our  rales,  we  shall  be  compelled,  very 
much  against  our  inclination,  to  ask  for  your  resignation. 

Respectfully, 

John  D.  Mills, 

See'y. 
4 


50  COR  RES  PO  N I )  E  \  OE. 

EXERCISES. 

1.  Yon  are  a  wholesale  .hardware  merchant,  and  one  of  your  traveling  men  is 
not  sending  in  as  large  and  frequent  orders  as  you  are  justified  in  expecting  from 
him,  considering  the  season,  the  salary  he  is  getting,  and  the  territory  assigned 
him.  You  have  compared  his  sales  with  those  in  the  same  territory  during  his 
former  trips,  and  find  he  is  falling  below  all  previous  records;  whereas,  the  general 
prosperity  of  trade  naturally  causes  you  to  look  for  a  considerable  increase  in  his 
orders.  Write  a  letter  stating  the  above  facts  as  mildly  as  possible,  and  tell  him 
you  are  willing  to  listen  (o  any  explanation  he  may  give  for  the  light  business  he  is 
doing,  and  to  allow  him  a  little  time  to  improve  before  permitting  yourself  to  believe 
he  is  responsible  for  it.  Make  him  feel  that  you  are  writing  a  letter  of  complaint, 
but  expressed  in  such  moderate  terms  that  he  will  understand  you  are  disposed  to 
be  patient  with  him. 

2.  Write  a  reply  from  the  salesman,  admitting  that  he  was  aware  of  the  compar- 
ative condition  of  his  sales  before  receiving  your  letter,  and  that  he  is  at  a  loss  to 
account  for  it,  unless  it  is  due  to  last  year's  overstocking;  that  he  has  never  worked 
more  faithfully  in  past  years  than  he  is  now  working,  and  that,  if  you  will  permit  it, 
he  would  like  to  report  in  person  some  time  soon  and  talk  matters  over  with  you. 

3.  Write  to  the  salesman  in  a  different  strain  from  the  first  letter,  but  stating 
the  same  facts.  Charge  him  with  lack  of  energy,  and  tell  him  that  you  cannot 
afford  to  continue  him  in  his  position  if  the  situation  does  not  begin  to  improve 
speedily.  Be  careful  that,  in  your  censure  of  his  slackness  in  business,  you  write 
nothing  disrespectful. 

4.  Write  the  salesman's  reply,  in  which  he  refers  you  to  a  former  letter  asking 
for  a  rest  for  a  week  or  two,  and  stating  that  the  present  trip  has  been  a  very  trying 
one  in  some  respects  (mention  them),  and  that  he  cannot  hold  out  any  hope  of 
doing  better  unless  he  be  allowed  a  time  for  rest  and  recuperation.  Write  in  a  strain 
that  indicates  injured  feelings,  but  free  from  undignified  language. 

5.  A  customer  who  buys  freely,  but  is  sometimes  slow  in  remitting,  is  more  than 
usually  delinquent,  several  amounts  being  considerably  overdue.  lie  has  received 
several  statements  of  account  with  request  to  remit,  but  has  paid  no  attention  to 
them.  Write  him  a  dunning  letter,  pressing  him  for  payment  as  closely  as  you 
think  you  can  without  offending  him.  The  two  points  that  have  about  equal  weight 
with  you  as  you  write  are,  that  you  really  need  the  money,  and  that  you  do  not  wish 
to  lose  his  trade. 

6.  You  are  a  shoe  manufacturer  and  guarantee  certain  lines  of  your  goods.  A 
customer  writes  that  the  goods  he  bought  of  you  are  not  equal  to  your  agent's  guar- 
antee (mention  particulars),  and  claims  a  discount  according  to  the  terms  of  his 
purchase.     Write  the  letter  of  your  customer. 

7.  Write  a  reply  to  the  foregoing  letter.  The  circumstances  are  these:  Y"ou  are 
not  very  well  acquainted  with  this  customer,  not  having  dealt  with  him  until 
recently,  and  you  do  not  know  how  much  confidence  to  place  in  his  honesty  and 
fairness  in  making  his  claim,  and  you  write  him  evasively  but  courteously,  stating 
that  you  will  hold  your  decision  until  you  have  seen  Mr.  True  (your  agent),  but 
assuring  him  that  whatever  agreement  Mr.  True  made  with  him  shall  be  faithfully 
fulfilled. 

8.  You  are  engaged  in  the  manufacture  of  farming  implements,  and  receive  a 
letter  from  a  distant  firm  enclosing  a  large  order,  the  first  they  have  ever  sent  you. 


TELEGKAPH1NG*  5] 

The  task  of  replying  is  rather  delicate  and  difficult,  because  you  wish  to  secure  their 
trade,  but  you  cannot  satisfy  yourself  as  to  their  standing,  and  you  do  not  wish  to 
run  any  risk.  Tell  them  that,  while  you  would  like  to  do  business  with  them,  yet 
as  they  are  strangers  to  you  and  have  no  report  in  the  commercial  agencies'  books, 
you  will  be  glad  to  fill  their  order  C.  0.  D. 

9.  Write  a  letter  and  rej^ly  regarding  some  troublesome  business  matter,  supply- 
ing the  circumstances  from  your  own  experience  or  observation;  as,  for  example, 
rival  companies  or  agents  infringing  upon  each  other's  rights,  losses  caused  by 
delays  in  shipment,  etc. 

10.  "Write  a  letter  to  J.  Wood  Davis,  calling  his  attention  to  the  fact  that  hia 
account  is  now  past  due,  and  asking  for  a  remittance. 

11.  Write  the  second  letter,  one  month  later,  again  calling  Mr.  D.'s  attention  to 
his  unpaid  account,  referring  to  former  letter  from  which  you  have  had  no  response, 
and  asking  for  at  least  an  explanation.     Give  the  amount  of  indebtedness  in  letter. 

12.  Write  a  third  letter  to  Mr.  D.,  referring  to  two  former  letters,  and  inform 
him  that  if  you  do  not  receive  a  remittance  or  a  satisfactory  letter  of  explanation 
within  ten  days  you  will  be  obliged  to  try  other  means  to  collect  the  account. 

13.  Write  a  letter  in  answer  to  No.  12,  making  some  kind  of  an  explanation  of 
the  matter. 


TELEGPxAPHIN"G. 

The  writing  of  telegraphic  dispatches  or  telegrams  is  a  peculiar  branch  of  compo- 
sition and  requires  special  practice.  The  matter  of  importance  is  to  say  the  most 
in  the  fewest  words,  and  this  is  done  without  regard  to  ordinary  rules  of  composi- 
tion. No  salutation  or  complimentary  closing  is  usually  employed,  as  in  letters, 
and  any  words  may  be  omitted  from  the  message  that  will  not  leave  the  meaning 
indistinct.  Beginners  should  first  write  the  message  out  in  full,  and  then  strike  out 
all  words  that  will  not  affect  the  clearness  of  the  meaning  of  the  remaining  words, 
till  the  matter  cannot  be  further  reduced  or  the  required  brevity  is  reached,  and  the 
message  should  then  be  copied.  Nothing  is  gained  by  reducing  a  message  below 
ten  words,  as  the  charge  is  the  same  for  a  less  number;  but  an  additional  charge  is 
made  for  every  word  above  ten,  and  hence  the  necessity  for  condensation. 

Numerals  and  characters  in  the  message  must  be  written  in  words.  For  example, 
"80/o"  must  be  written  "eighty  per  cent,"  "$50"— "fifty  dollars." 

An  order  for  goods  by  telegraph  especially  should  not  be  so  brief  as  to  sacrifice 
clearness  of  statement.  The  language  should  be  made  as  concise  as  possible,  but 
obscurity  or  uncertainty  of  meaning  should  not  be  allowed  to  arise  from  an  undue 
cutting  down  of  the  number  of  words.  A  telegram  is  resorted  to  only  when  time 
is  to  be  gained  and  business  hastened,  and  to  insure  this  the  wording  must  be 
unmistakable. 

The  following  actual  circumstance  forcibly  illustrates  the  danger  of  the  extreme 
shortening  of  a  dispatch  : 

Tbe  price  of  wheat  delivered  at  Rochester  was  asked  for  by  a  Rochester  broker.  The  reply  waa 
wired  from  Chicago  in  these  words,  "Ninety-four  Rochester."  The  receiving  operator  misspelled 
four  and  made  it  read,  "Ninety  for  Rochester,"  on  which  basis  a  purchase  was  made,  aud  the 
broker  lost  $85  in  the  transaction,  involving  a  suit  to  recover  from  the  telegraph  company.  Had 
the  little  word  "at "been  inserted,  the  trouble  would  have  been  prevented,  as  "Ninety  for  at 
Rochester"  would  have  been  meaningless. 


52  CORRESPONDENCE. 

Even  when  the  dispatch  requires  more  than  ten  words,  it  is  poor  economy  to 
incur  the  risk  of  mistake,  delay,  or  loss  by  the  obscurity  of  a  message  which  the  use 
of  a  few  more  words,  at  a  slight  expense,  Mould  obviate.  On  the  other  hand,  a 
needless  multiplying  of  words  when  a  less  number  would  answer  the  purpose  is  to 
be  discouraged  on  general  principles.  The  faculty  to  express  one's  meaning  clearly 
in  a  i'rw  words  is  desirable  in  all  business  correspondence,  but  especially  so  where  the 
transact  ion  of  business  involves  the  use  of  the  telegraph. 

For  instance,  the  following  dispatch  : 

"  When  will  you  ship  balance  oak  timber  we  ordered  last  month  ?  Answer  before  five  this 
afternoon.     Contractor  must  lay  off  his  men  to-night.     Wants  to  tell  them  when  to  return," 

can  be  made  to  convey  all  the  information  the  lumber  merchant  reauires  or  cares  to 
receive  by  writing  the  following: 

"  When  will  you  ship  balance  oak  ordered  last  month  ?  Answer  before  five  to-day.  Con- 
tractor must  notify  men." 

Or  again  : 

"Your  offer  to  take  our  stock  of  Tapestries  at  twenty  per  cent,  discount  accepted.  Will 
ship  first  lot  to-morrow.     Cannot  ship  balance  till  next  week," 

may  be  reduced  to 

* '  Offer  for  Tapestries  twenty  off  accepted.    First  shipment  to-morrow.    Balance  next  week. " 

It  is  not  always  desirable  that  a  message  be  intelligible  to  others  than  those  inter- 
ested. For  instance,  a  dispatch  reading  as  follows:  "  Paid  Harrison  ninety  to-day," 
might  mean  that  Harrison  was  paid  $90  on  account,  that  he  was  paid  ninety  cents 
a  bushel  for  wheat,  or  that  he  was  paid  90$  for  railroad  stocks,  and  yet  be  perfectly 
clear  to  the  parties  concerned,  but  unintelligible  to  outsiders,  an  element  very  desira- 
ble in  many  telegrams.  In  fact,  no  small  portion  of  the  telegraphing  of  the  world  is 
carried  on  in  cipher,  making  it  possible  to  communicate  the  most  important  intelli- 
gence and  to  discuss  the  most  private  affairs  between  points  hundreds  of  miles 
distant  from  each  other,  with  nearly  as  much  safety  and  secrecy  as  they  could  be 
talked  over  in  the  private  office.  The  cipher  is  used  also  to  lessen  the  expense,  as  a 
word  is  often  made  to  represent  a  sentence,  or  sometimes  even  an  order  for  goods. 

A  brief  message  by  telegraph  is  usually  followed  by  a  letter  containing  full 
particulars,  and  precedes  the  letter  for  the  purpose  of  accelerating  business,  or 
withholding  a  decision.  If  such  telegrams  are  not  answered  by  wire,  they  should 
be  noted  in  the  reply  letter  in  words  similar  to  the  following : 

"Your  letter  of  the  10th  hist,  confirming  telegram  of  the  8th,  received." 

EXERCISES. 

Write  the  following  telegrams: 

1.  "Write  a  dispatch  to  Most  &  Stevens,  Springfield,  Ohio,  ordering  by  American 
Express,  to  be  sent  at  once,  one  No.  4  Mower. 

2.  Write  a  dispatch  to  Davis,  Lord  &  Co.,  90  Grand  St.,  Chicago,  asking  them 
how  they  wish  their  order  for  paper  of  1st  inst.  shipped. 

3.  Write  a  dispatch  to  Capt.  E.  P.  Allen,  Ypsilanti,  Mich.,  saying  you  will  pass 
through  his  place  at  9  a.  m.,  and  that  you  would  like  to  see  him  at  the  station. 

4.  Write  a  dispatch  congratulating  a  friend  upon  his  election  as  senator. 


TELEGRAPHING.  53 

5.  "Write  a  ten-word  dispatch  to  James  Lawrence,  Byron,  1ST.  Y.,  saying  that 
yourself  and  brother  and  one  trunk  Avill  arrive  at  that  place  at  6  p.  m.,  and  that  you 
wish  him  to  meet  you  at  the  station. 

6.  Write  a  dispatch  to  Willotson  &  Co.,  94  Greene  St.,  Cleveland,  0.,  saying  that 
the  shipment  of  oats  is  not  equal  to  sample,  but  you  will  accept  if  they  will  allow 
you  a  reduction  of  twenty  dollars. 

~.  Write  a  dispatch  to  conductor  of  train  9,  at  Albion,  N.  Y.,  saying  you  left 
a  satchel,  marked  with  your  initials,  on  train.  Instruct  him  to  forward  it  to  Koch- 
ester  at  your  expense. 

8.  "Write  a  dispatch  to  your  brother  at  Toledo,  0.,  4G4  Fourth  St.,  saying  that 
the  frightful  accident  on  the  railroad  on  which  you  are  traveling  was  on  the  train 
ahead  of  yours,  and  that  you  are  safe  and  well. 

9.  Write  a  dispatch  to  Proprietor  Hotel  Brunswick,  Cincinnati,  0.,  asking  him 
to  reserve  for  you  a  good  single  room,  one  on  the  north  side  preferred,  from  Wednes- 
day noon. 

10.  Write  a  dispatch  to  Howe,  White  &  Co.,  Produce  Exchange,  New  York,  ask- 
ing permission  to  draw  at  ten  days  for  Five  Hundred  Dollars,  and  when  they  will 
remit  if  they  do  not  wish  to  honor  draft. 

11.  Write  an  answer  to  above,  instructing  you  not  to  draw,  and  that  they  will 
remit  in  ten  days. 

12.  Write  a  dispatch  to  your  traveling  agent,  Mr.  H.  J.  Sanford,  Commercial 
Hotel,  Toledo,  Ohio,  instructing  him  to  skip  Detroit,  go  on  to  Chicago,  and  return 
by  the  way  of  Pittsburg.  Also  state  that  a  letter,  which  will  give  full  instructions, 
follows. 

13.  Write  a  dispatch  to  H.  W.  H.  Jaynes,  14  Stamford  St.,  Providence,  B.  I., 
asking  him  to  telegraph  you,  at  once,  an  order  for  One  Hundred  Forty-two  Dollars. 

14.  Answer  the  foregoing,  saying  order  is  sent,  and  that  Eichard  Eipley  will 
identify  if  necessary. 


54  CORRESPONDENT!: 

a    BUSINESS   LETTER., 


^L^2^Lx^  6^^/ 


~&4s  /^ /fr- 


iz- djc  -^tz^t/.  ^U^cJ^r 


^C^ie^  z^n^i^a^z^y  <#-£<■  /~z  67^*-^  a^z^y  ^ynA%t£dA>  a^cA^u^-t^ 
^^w??4izJ/^U>4s^^        (O^zy  -T^  j//^°-  ^~  <%^^/  /£rus  ^kJ^ 


MISCELLANEOUS  EXERCISES. 

1.  Write  a  letter  to  your  employer,  resigning  your  position  as  shipping  clerk. 
Give  reasons  for  your  action,  and  say  that  you  would  be  glad  to  receive  a  letter  of 
recommendation  from  him,  if  he  considers  you  worthy  of  it. 

2.  Write  a  telegram,  not  to  exceed  ten  words,  to  be  sent  to  Messrs.  Wright  & 
Allen,  Lumber  Dealers,  Buffalo,  N.  Y.,  countermanding  your  order  for  clear  pine 
sent  them  yesterday.     Tell  them  that  a  letter  follows  your  dispatch. 

3.  Write  a  letter  to  a  friend  who  has  for  some  time  used  a  graphophone  in  his 


MISCELLANEOUS   EXERCISES.  55 

office  in  connection  with  a  type-writer,  asking  him  if  he  finds  the  graphophone 
adapted  to  and  an  aid  in  correspondence  work,  and  what  its  special  advantages  are, 
or  the  objections  to  it. 

4.  Write  an  answer  to  the  above. 

5.  Write  the  letter  making  the  inquiries  regarding  stock,  prices,  terms,  and 
references  answered  in  the  following  letter: 

144  Exchange  Street, 

Beading,  Pa.,  June  13,  1889. 
J.  B.  French,  Esq., 
Morning  News, 

Savannah,   Ga. 
Dear  Sir, — Your  esteemed  favor  of  the  9th  inst.  received.     We  can  supply  you  with  paper 
delivered  at  either  Savannah   or   Macon,  Ga.,  in  carload  lots,  for  3fs  cents  per  lb.  cash, — set- 
tlements to  be  made  each  month  for  paper  used  the  previous  month. 

We  inclose  you  samples  of  our  stock,  and  can  refer  you  to  any  of  the  newspapers  named  in 
our  circular,  also  inclosed.  We  would  say  that,  apart  from  those  who  are  under  contract  to  us 
now,  we  have  supplied  within  a  few  years  past  such  papers  as  the  N.  Y.  Herald,  N.  Y.  World, 
and  Philadelphia  Item. 

We  are  very  careful  in  the  preparation  of  our  roll  paper,  regrinding  a  great  deal  of  it  to 
insure  its  perfect  quality  in  every  particular,  and  we  have  no  doubt  that  our  stock  would  be 
entirely  satisfactory  to  you. 

Yours  respectfully, 

The  Superior  Paper  Co. 

6.  Write  also  a  reply,  inclosing  a  trial  order. 

7.  Write  a  reply  to  the  following  letter,  explaining  the  apparent  neglect. 

Manchester,  Mich.,  June  10,  1889. 
S.  S.  Colton, 
Emporia,  Kas. 

Dear  Sir, —  Our  draft  on  you  of  May  29,  for  invoice  of  goods  shipped  for  your  account 
March  23  last,  $22.25,  and  goods  delivered  by  Agent,  75  cts. — total  $23.,  has  been  returned 
to  us  with  the  indorsement,  "No  Attention." 

The  account  being  now  some  ten  days  or  two  weeks  past  due,  we  would  request  that  you 
make  us  a  remittance  by  N.  Y.  Draft  or  Money  Order  to  balance  same,  by  return  mail,  and 
oblige, 

Yours  truly. 

Standard  Chesi.  Co. 

8.  Write  a  letter  to  a  friend,  telling  him  you  are  about  to  buy  a  type-writer,  and 
asking  his  opinion  of  the  different  kinds  on  the  market. 

9.  Write  an  answer  to  the  above,  recommending  some  machine,  and  giving  your 
reasons. 

10.  Write  to  the  publisher  of  some  paper,  asking  him  to  change  the  address  of 
the  paper  sent  you.     Give  both  addresses  in  full. 

11.  You  have  found,  on  a  North  Avenue  street  car,  a  large  leather  purse  con- 
taining a  twenty  dollar  gold  coin,  a  ten  dollar  national  bank  note  on  the  Bank  of 
Middletown,  N.  Y.,  three  silver  dollars,  and  fifty-five  cents  in  change,  Write 
proper  advertisement  for  the  daily  papers. 

12.  Write  a  letter  to  a  friend  in  Cleveland,  0.,  asking  his  opinion  as  to  the' 
value  or  practical  utility  of  electricity  as  a  motive  power  for  street  cars,  as  compared 
with  horses. 

13.  Write  an  answer  to  the  above. 

14.  Write  a  letter  to  an  employee  regarding  his  intemperate  habits,  saying  you 
will  regret  to  lose  him,  but  that  you  cannot  longer  tolerate  his  weakness  or  vice,  and 
that,  unless  there  is  a  change  for  the  better  at  once,  you  will  be  obliged  to  discharge 
him. 


COKRESPONDENCE. 

15.  "Write  to  a  friend.,  congratulating  him  upon  the  success  of  a  book  written  by 
him,  that  you  have  just  read  and  are  highly  pleased  with. 

16.  Write  a  letter  to  the  patentee  of  a  valuable  invention,  applying  for  the  gen* 
oval  agency  for  your  state.  Give  references  and  experience,  and  what  salary  or 
commission  you  will  require. 

1  ?.      Write  an  answer  to  the  above. 

18.  Write  a  letter  from  J.  W.  Atwater,  Buffalo,  N.  Y.,  to  W.  H.  Young,  643 
Broadway,  New  York,  asking  him  to  be  at  the  Long  Distance  Telephone  office,  600 
Broadway,  on  Saturday  afternoon  at  three  o'clock,  as  he  wishes  to  talk  to  him  five 
minutes  on  business  matters. 

19.  Write  the  engraved  letter  of  0.  K.  Dunton,  page  54,  in  good  form,  making 
it  as  different  in  wording  as  possible  from  letter  given,  but  expressing  the  same  ideas. 

20.  Write  a  letter  to  the  chief  of  police  of  Rockland,  Ind.,  asking  for  any  inform- 
ation regarding  the  character  or  financial  standing  of  one  H.  C.  Calhoun,  a  former 
resident. 

21.  Write  an  answer  to  letter  called  for  above. 

22.  Write  a  letter  to  J.  C.  Lord,  Esq.,  chairman  Texas  Congress  of  Commerce, 
St.  Louis,  Mo.,  stating  you  are  advised  that  he  is  the  proper  person  to  whom  to 
apply  for  guaranteed  rates  to  San  Francisco,  covering  the  year.  Mention  a  contract 
you  have  a  prospect  of  obtaining,  calling  for  about  fifteen  car  loads  of  paper  a 
month,  but  will  not  close  it  till  rates  can  be  settled  upon,  on  account  of  the  fluctua- 
tion in  through  rates.  Ask  him  to  advise  you  whether  you  can  be  protected  in  any- 
way.    Sign  the  letter,  American  Paper  Co.,  per  (your  name). 

23.  Write  a  letter  you  are  supposed  to  have  received  from  a  friend  traveling  in 
Europe,  giving  an  account  of  the  places  he  has  visited. 

24.  Write  a  letter  asking  a  customer  to  settle  his  account  to  some  definite  date, 
instead  of  sending  small  remittances  on  account.  Book-keeper  has  great  trouble 
and  annoyance  in  rendering  statements. 

25.  Write  a  letter  to  a  patron  who  claims  that  his  right  to  the  exclusive  sale  of 
your  goods  given  him  by  your  Mr.  Judson,  is  infringed  upon  by  other  dealers.  Not 
knowing  positively,  write  as  fairly  and  in  as  conciliatory  a  spirit  as  possible,  stating 
that  Mr.  Judson  has  no  doubt  acted  in  good  faith,  but  do  not  commit  yourself  till 
you  have  seen  Mr.  Judson. 

26.  Write  a  letter  to  a  railroad  company  regarding  overcharge.  Freight  was 
prepaid  to  Denver  and  Denver  agent  paid  additional  charges,  which  were  excessive. 
Ask  to  have  the  amount  of  the  overcharge  refunded. 

27.  Write  a  letter  to  agent.  Report  of  sales  does  not  agree  with  footing.  Ask 
for  explanation. 

28.  Write  a  letter  expressing  your  approval  of  plan  proposed  by  partner. 

29.  Write  a  letter  explaining  that  the  recent  loss  of  stock,  etc.,  by  fire,  will  cause 
delay  in  filling  orders. 

30.  Write  a  letter  to  publisher,  stopping  subscription  to  paper.     Give  reason. 

To  Teacher. — The  following  outlines  will  tend  to  develop  originality,  as  they  call  for  letters 
regarding  actual  circumstances. 

31.  Yvrrite  a  letter  to  your  teacher,  stating  that  you  have  been  requested  by  your 
parents  or  guardian  to  ask  that  reports  of  your  attendance,  daily  work  and  progress 
be  sent  to  your  home  at  regular  intervals. 

To  Student. — Avoid  as  much  as  possible  using  the  words  and  phrases  employed  in  giving  the 
exercises.  Try  to  catch  the  ideas  and  clothe  them  in  your  own  language.  The  exercises  will 
become  much  more  valuable  to  you  if  you  follow  this  plan. 


MISCELLANEOUS    EXEECISES.  57 

32.  Write  a  letter  to  the  principal  of  the  school,  giving  your  programme  of  study 
both  in  and  out  of  school,  your  hours  and  methods  of  recreation,  hours  for  retiring 
and  rising,  and  any  other  information  regarding  the  employment  of  your  time. 

33.  Write  a  letter  to  the  principal,  giving  an  account  of  the  last  examination 
you  had  in  book-keeping,  law,  arithmetic,  penmanship,  or  other  subject  as  the  case 
may  be.  Give  him  your  opinion  as  to  any  special  value  such  examinations  possess 
for  you  as  a  mental  drill,  review  exercise,  or  any  other  benefit  you  derive  from  them. 

34.  You  have  received  from  your  father,  or  guardian,  a  letter  inclosing  a  check 
on  the  bank  through  which  he  usually  transacts  his  business,  to  be  applied  by  you  in 
defraying  your  expenses.  Reply  to  the  letter,  acknowledging  receipt  of  check  and 
stating  what  disposition  you  have  made  of  it;  whether  you  had  it  cashed  by  the 
secretary  of  the  college,  or  obtained  his  indorsement  so  that  the  bank  cashed  it  for 
you;  whether  you  took  a  certificate  for  it,  or  what  you  did  with  it;  and  state  that 
you  are  keeping  an  account  of  your  receipts  and  expenditures,  so  that  at  the  close 
of  your  term  you  can  show  him  how  the  money  supplied  you  has  been  used. 

35.  Write  a  letter  to  the  principal,  inclosing  the  bank  check  just  received,  and 
asking  him  to  identify  you  by  indorsement  or  to  cash  it  for  you  as  he  prefers,  and 
stating  that  if  he  prefers  the  latter,  you  will  call  at  his  office  for  the  money  at  any 
time  he  will  be  kind  enough  to  appoint. 

3G.  Write  a  letter  to  your  teacher,  explaining  that  you  wish  to  be  absent  from 
school  for  a  week  on  a  visit  to  your  home.  Briefly  state  the  condition  in  which  your 
work  will  be  left  if  you  go  now,  and  tell  him  that  you  cannot  see  a  better  opportu- 
nity for  breaking  off  for  a  week  without  interfering  with  your  progress  and  discom- 
moding him,  but  that  if  he  has  any  suggestions  to  make  you  will  be  glad  to  receive 
them. 

37.  Write  to  the  teacher  from  your  home,  stating  that  the  sudden  and  serious 
illness  of  your  father  (or  some  other  cause)  will  compel  your  absence  from  school 
for  an  indefinite  period,  but  that  as  soon  as  you  can  learn  with  any  definiteness  the 
probable  duration  of  your  absence  you  will  notify  him.  Ask  him,  in  the  meantime, 
to  take  charge  of  your  books  and  papers. 

Xote. — The  student  is  reminded  to  use  language  original  with  himself.  It  will  he  very  easy  to 
write  almost  the  whole  of  this  letter  by  simply  introducing  a  few  words  to  join  the  sentences  as 
they  stand  in  the  exercise,  and  the  teacher  who  accepts  such  work  does  his  students  great  injury. 

38.  Write  a  letter  to  the  teacher,  stating  that  your  lack  in  arithmetic  or  writing 
is  so  great  that  you  think  the  best  thing  you  can  do  is  to  drop  all  other  work  for  a 
time  and  give  your  whole  attention  to  the  subject  named.  Ask  his  advice  in  the 
matter. 

39.  Write  a  letter  to  the  principal,  asking  him  to  advise  you  as  to  your  securing 
employment  after  completing  the  course.  Tell  him  frankly  what  your  inclinations 
or  preferences  are,  and  request  him  to  give  you  his  best  judgment  in  the  case,  even 
if  it  antagonize  your  choice. 

40.  Write  a  letter  to  the  principal,  stating  that  you  have  completed  the  work  of 
the  course,  and  believe  yourself  to  be  entitled  to  the  honors  of  graduation.  Inclose 
the  required  fee  for  your  diploma,  and  write  your  name  as  you  wish  it  to  appear 
thereon. 


5S  coiu;i;6ro.sL>i;.Nc;is. 


Social  Correspondence. 


That  the  ability  to  write  good  business  letters  is  a  very  desirable  acquisition,  and 
that  its  importance  can  scarcely  be  over-estimated,  is  unquestioned.  But  the  ability 
to  write  desirable  letters  of  friendship  is  also  valuable,  and  a  few  suggestions  are 
offered,  important,  we  believe,  not  only  to  those  who  have  acquired  skill  and  readi- 
ness in  the  use  of  the  concise,  expressive  forms  of  statement  required  in  business 
correspondence,  but  also  to  that  large  class  of  persons  not  engaged  in  business,  and 
who  will  have  occasion  to  write  few,  if  any,  business  letters. 

All  will  have  more  or  less  of  social  or  friendly  correspondence,  and  while  many 
persons  may  write  suitable  business  letters,  they  may  find  it  necessary  to  cultivate 
greater  ease  and  felicity  of  expression  in  their  social  letters  than  the  briefer  and  more 
exacting  style  at  their  office  desks. 

Materials  and  Form. — The  paper  and  envelopes  suitable  for  social  correspond- 
ence are  described  on  pages  7  and  8,  and  while  the  same  general  rules  as  to  the 
form  and  position  of  the  various  parts  of  a  letter  apply  here  as  in  business  corres- 
pondence, the  difference  in  the  size  and  shape  of  the  sheet  generally  used,  as  well 
as  in  the  familiarity  of  the  communication,  causes  the  social  letter  to  differ  some- 
what in  form  from  the  business  letter,  as  explained  below. 

1.  Heading. — Form  and  position  as  in  business  letters  illustrated  on  page  4. 

2.  Address. — "When  the  address  is  given  in  social  letters,  its  proper  position  is 
after  the  body  of  the  letter  on  the  line  below  the  signature  and  commencing  about 
half  an  inch  from  the  left  side  of  the  sheet.  The  following  form  illustrates  the 
proper  position  of  the  address: 

I  shall  write  you  again  soon  after  we  reach  the  mountains,  which  will  require  about  ten  or 
twelve  days,  at  our  present  rate  of  travel. 

Your  sincere  friend, 
T.  T.  Festlay,  J.  W.  Cabon. 

Fort  Wayne, 

Ind. 

Probably  not  more  than  ten  per  cent,  of  the  social  letters  written  in  this  country 
nowadays  contain  the  address,  the  salutation  being  made  to  do  duty  for  both. 
While  in  such  correspondence  as  that  between  brothers  and  sisters,  intimate  friends, 
or  schoolmates,  the  address  may  be  unnecessary  and  may  be  omitted  without  offend- 
ing good  taste,  yet  there  are  many  letters  in  which  the  address  placed  at  the  close 
shows  a  deference  and  imparts  a  tone  of  respect  so  fitting  and  appropriate  as  to 
render  it  very  desirable  to  place  it  there.  Letters  to  parents,  or  elderly  relatives, 
and  letters  in  general  written  to  our  seniors  or  superiors  who  favor  us  with  social  or 
friendly  correspondence,  may  be  included  in  this  class. 

3.  Salutation  and  Closing. —  The  position  of  the  salutation  is  on  the  next 
line  below  the  date,  commencing  about  one  inch  from  the  left  side  of  the  sheet. 
On  page  14  are  pointed  out  the  ruling  forms  of  salutation  in  business  letters,  with 


SOCIAL   CORRESPONDENCE.  Di* 

reasons  for  their  choice,  and  the  same  general  principles  apply  in  social  letters.  The 
familiarity  and  warmth  of  expression  of  the  salutation  and  complimentary  closing 
depend  upon  the  nature  of  the  correspondence,  and  the  intimacy  of  the  friendship, 
or  the  closeness  of  the  relationship  of  the  parties.  It  is  not  imperative  that  they 
should  be  equal  in  the  letter  and  the  reply,  as  a  disparity  in  the  ages  or  positions  of 
the  correspondents  may  justify  a  reserve  on  the  part  of  the  senior  or  superior  which 
would  be  unbecoming  and  improper  in  the  other.  It  is  safe  to  say  that  in  corres-= 
2"»ondence,  a  person  is  entitled  to  at  least  an  equal  degree  of  respect  to  that  accorded 
him  in  personal  association. 

As  we  adapt  ourselves,  therefore,  to  the  circumstances  of  age  and  position  of  our 
relatives  and  friends  in  social  life,  and  demean  ourselves  accordingly,  so  we  vary  our 
style  correspondingly  in  our  letters.  A  point  never  to  be  overlooked  in  a  letter  is 
the  suitability  of  its  style  to  the  subject-matter,  and  to  the  party  to  whom  it  is 
addressed. 

Ordinary  letters  of  friendship  properly  commence  with  the  word  ' '  Friend  "  written 
before  the  surname,  as  "Friend  Harris"  and  close  with  "Your Friend"  or  "Yours 
truly"  preceding  the  surname  of  the  writer.  Greater  familiarity  would  justify  the 
use  of  the  given  name  instead  of  the  surname,  as  "Friend  Fred.,"  closing  with  the 
writer's  given  name'  as,  "Your  Friend  Ralph."  In  just  what  cases  these  familiar 
terms  may  be  used  without  presumption  remains  for  the  writer  to  decide.  Many  a 
correspondent,  uneducated  in  this  respect,  is  ignorant  of  the  effect  produced  by  his 
improprieties  upon  persons  of  refined  manners  and  tastes,  and  would  probably  be 
surprised  if  he  knew  just  how  far  such  matters  enter  into  and  affect  the  general 
estimate  of  his  standing  and  worth.  .  The  same  qualities  that  combine  to  make  the 
agreeable  associate  are  required  to  make  the  desirable  correspondent,  and  over- 
familiarity  is  not  one  of  them  in  either  case.  If  any  doubt  exists  as  to  the  pro- 
priety of  using  a  given  form  or  term,  care  should  be  taken  to  respect  the  doubt  and 
avoid  the  questionable  term. 

The  very  great  variety  of  expression  m  salutations  and  complimentary  closings  of 
friendly  letters  makes  it  possible  to  give  as  examples  only  a  very  small  portion  of 
those  in  actual  use,  as  the  shades  of  expression  to  suit  the  particular  feeling,  spirit, 
or  temper  of  the  writer  are  almost  unlimited. 

4-.  Body  of  Letter. — The  body  of  the  letter  in  social  correspondence  usually 
begins  at  the  right  of  the  salutation,  on  the  next  line  below.  In  social  letters,  both 
sides  of  the  sheets  are  written  on,  if  the  letter  is  more  than  one  page  in  length, 
and  the  j>ages  are  not  numbered  unless  the  sheets  are  separate. 

LETTERS  OF  AFFECTION. 

Letters  of  Affection  are  such  as  grow  out  of  our  regard  for  others.  They  are 
as  varied  as  our  relations  to  others  are  varied,  and  may  be  simply  the  expression 
of  kindly  feeling  or  they  may  be  dictated  by  the  strongest  impulses  that  move 
the  human  heart. 

Letters  of  affection  add  much  to  human  happiness,  and  more  of  them  should  be 
written.  To  father,  mother  or  sister  at  home,  what  a  joy  there  is  in  a  letter  from  a 
loved  one  who  is  away.  From  one  for  whom  we  have  a  high  regard,  what  a  pleasure 
it  is  to  receive  a  good  letter!  Our  pleasure  in  receiving  such  letters  suggests  to  us 
most  forcibly  our  duty  as  regards  writing  them. 


60  CORRESPONDENCE. 

LETTERS  OE  FRIENDSHIP. 

Letters  of  Friendship  make  up  that  large  class  of  written  messages  that 
perpel  aate  the  i  ies  of  friendship  and  regard  of  those  who  are  absent  from  each  other. 
The  chief  charm  of  a  Letter  of  friendship  is  its  natural,  conversational  stylo.  It 
should  cause  the  recipient  to  feel  that  he  has  been  favored  with  a  delightful  visit, 
not  a  formal  call,  that  the  little  matters  of  mutual  interest  have  been  talked  over, 
and  that  the  common  experiences  and  details  of  every-day  life  have  not  b  en  for- 
gotten. The  very  heartiness  and  animation  put  into  the  letter  work  their  way  into 
his  life,  and  fill  a  place  in  his  heart  that  would  be  wanting  if  the  style  were 
strained  or  formal  or  borrowed. 

Thus,  Bayard  Taylor,  while  in  Germany,  writes  to  an  intimate  friend  in  America : 

"Your  letter  came  four  or  five  days  ago,  and  I  take  my  first  leisure  to  answer  it.  I  take  it 
for  granted  that  this  ■will  find  you  in  your  Tenth  Street  rooms,  which  are  so  clear  in  my 
memory  that  a  letter  is  more  like  a  personal  meeting  to  me  than  when  you  were  in  Ron- 
dout.  You  somehow  manage  to  bring  your  own  bodily  self  before  me  when  you  write  :  I  see 
your  eyes  and  the  changing  expression  of  your  face,  as  I  read,  and  the  sound  of  your  voice 
accompanies  the  written  words.  Thus  your  letters  are  most  welcome,  no  matter  what  you 
write.     *     *     * " 

Again,  in  reply  to  a  cheering  letter  sent  him  while  under  a  cloud  of  trouble  and 
disajrpointment,  he  writes : 

"Your  letter  really  cheered  both  of  us,  and  some  cheer  (although  the  worst  was  over)  was 
needed.  I  feel  entirely  free  to  give  you  always  an  honest  picture  of  my  mental  and  moral 
condition,  and  you  must  not  withhold  your  depressions  in  return,. for  they  belong  to  your 
life.  This  is  the  great  relief  and  blessing  of  our  correspondence,  and  any  feeling  of  restraint, 
on  either  side,  would  take  away  from  its  value.     *     *     *  " 

To  another  : 

"You  made  your  short  note  so  pleasant  that  I  can't  scold  you  for  its  brevity ;  yet  I  should 
like  to.  There  might  have  been  so  much  more  of  what  may  seem  personal  or  domestic 
'  nothings '  to  you,  yet  have  such  value  at  this  distance.     *     *     *  " 

But  while  a  formal  style  in  friendly  letters  is  to  be  discouraged,  a  familiarity  that 
may  be  safely  indulged  in  conversation  may  be  altogether  out  of  good  taste  in  a 
letter. 

We  do  not  always  measure  what  is  spoken  to  us  by  the  exact,  literal  meaning  of 
the  words  uttered,  as  they  are  usually  modified  by  the  look,  tone  of  voice,  or  gesture 
of  the  speaker.  But  in  the  letter  these  are  absent,  and  however  thoroughly  we  may 
think  we  understand  the  spirit  of  our  correspondent,  we  should  not  allow  ourselves 
to  write  carelessly  or  thoughtlessly.  An  impression  produced  by  a  hasty,  inconsid- 
erate word  is  hard  to  dislodge,  and  we  should  write  with  the  idea  constantly  before 
us  that  a  word  written  is  much  more  difficult  to  recall  than  a  word  spoken,  remem- 
bering, also,  that  our  letters  may  be  seen  by  others  than  those  for  whom  they  are 
intended  —  a  circumstance  not  infrequently  caused  by  accident  or  necessity. 

As  in  conversation  so  in  correspondence,  the  subject-matter,  while  dealing  with 
events,  persons,  and  things  of  mutual  interest,  should  be  free  from  gossip.  Nothing 
either  in  conversation  or  correspondence  more  certainly  indicates  shallowness  and 
poverty  of  mind  than  the  tendency  to  dwell  upon  the  real  or  fancied  faults  and 
failings  of  others;  and  the  inclination  to  join  in  the  whisperings  and  idle  talk  too 
commonly  indulged  in  should  be  promptly  and  effectually  checked.  The  smallest 
occurrences  may  be  noted,  but  opinions  or  thoughts  original  with  the  writer  serve  to 
stamp  his  letters  with  his  own  individuality  and  add  interest  and  value  to  his  corres- 


SOCIAL   CORRESPONDENCE.  61 

pondence.     Freshness  aud  originality  in  expression  should  be  cultivated,  especially 
in  the  opening  and  closing  sentences,  avoiding  the  old,  time-worn  phrases,  as  : 

"  I  thought  I  would  write  you  letting  you  know,"  "  I  now  take  my  pen  in  hand,"  etc. 

How  refreshing  to  receive  a  letter  from  a  friend  who  begins  to  talk  to  us  from  the 
first  line ;  for  instance, 

"  It  was  kind  in  you  to  send  me  a  good,  long  letter  while  I  was  lying  all  alone  in  my  room 
with  nothing  else  to  do  but  take  villainous  doses  of  medicine ; " 

1 '  It  was  a  delight  to  me  to  see  your  hand  on  an  envelope  again  ; " 

"I  found  your  letter  waiting  for  me  on  Monday  when  my  holiday  closed." 

Compare  also  such  closing  sentences  as  : 

"  Having  told  you  all  I  know  or  care  to  write,  I  will  now  close  ;M 

"  I  must  bring  my  letter  to  a  close  as  I  have  nearly  filled  the  sheet ; " 

with  such  as  : 

"  Recollect  that  I  am  absent  and  you  are  at  home,  so  your  letters  are  worth  the  most ; " 

"  Remember  me  very  kindly  to  your  brother  and  my  old  friends  on  the  hill,  and  believe 
me, 

Yours  very  sincerely, 

Sometimes,  in  the  desire  to  be  perfectly  free  and  unrestrained  in  familiar  letters, 

forms  are  made  to  give  way  in  a  most  pleasing  manner,  especially  in  beginning  the 

letter.     This  is  charmingly  illustrated  in  the  letters  of  some  of  our  best  authors. 

We  give  a  few  examples: 

Boston,  Dec.  10,  1840. 
Don't,  dear  Lieber,  be  offended  by  my  long  silence.     For  the  last  few  days  I  have  been  all 
the  time  in  court.     ****** 

Ever  and  ever  yours, 

Chas.  Sumner. 

(Sumner  to  Mr.  Tower.) 

Never,  my  friend,  when  the  heavens  have  been  dressed  in  their  scorching  robes  of  brass  for 
weeks,  was  a  drop  of  run  more  grateful  than  your  timely  epistle.     *    *     *     * 

(Sydney  Smith  to  Lady  Grey.) 

Dec.  8,  1838. 
Awkward  times,  dear  Lady  Grey !    However  you  see  those  you  love  sooner  than  you  other- 
wise would  have  seen  them.     *    *    * 

(To  Lady  Holland.) 

If  all  the  friends,  dear  Lady  Holland,  who  have  shared  in  your  kindness  and  hospitality 
»    *    * 

(To  Miss  .) 

Lucy,  Lucy,  my  dear  child,  write  as  your  mother  writes;  act  as  your  mother  acts,  and  don't 
♦     *     *     *     * 

When  Dickens  arranged  to  come  to  America  to  give  his  course  of  readings,  his 

friend  Fields  wrote  him  a  letter  inviting  him  to  be  his  guest  on  his  arrival.     We 

give  the  characteristic  renly  of  Dickens: 

Gad's  Him,,  Oct.  3,  1866. 
My  Dear  Fields, 

I  cannot  tell  you  how  much  I  thank  you  for  your  kind  little  letter  which  is  like  a  pleasant 
voice  coming  across  the  Atlantic,  with  that  domestic  welcome  in  it  which  lias  no  substitute  on 
earth.     If  you  knew  how  strongly  I  am  inclined  to  allow  myself  the  pleasure  of  staying  at 


COREESPONDEN-CrK. 

vcnu*  house,  you  would  look  upon  me  as  a  kind  of  ancient  Roman  (which  I  trust  I  am  not)  for 
having  the  courage  to  say  no.  But  if  I  gave  myself  that  gratification  in  the  beginning,  I 
could  scarcely  hope  to  get  on  in  the  hard  "reading"  life,  without  offending  some  kindly  dis- 
posed and  hospitable  American  friend  afterwards;  whereas,  if  I  observe  my  English  principle 
on  such  occasions,  of  having  no  abiding  place  but  a  hotel,  and  stick  to  it  from  the  first,  I  may 
perhaps  count  on  being  consistently  uncomfortable. 

The  nightly  exertion  necessitates  meals  at  odd  hoiu's,  silence  and  rest  at  impossible  times 
of  the  day,  and  a  general  Spartan  behavior  so  utterly  inconsistent  with  my  nature,  that  if  you 
were  to  give  me  a  happy  inch,  I  should  take  au  ell,  and  frightfully  disappoint  you  in  public. 
1  d<  »n't  want  to  do  that,  if  I  can  help  it,  so  I  will  bo  good  in  spite  of  myself. 

Ever  your  affectionato  friend, 

CHABLES    DlOKENS. 

Extract  from  one  of  Sydnev  Smith's  familiar  letters  : 

Eoston,  Sep.  16,  1821. 
Mr  Bear  Lady  Grey, 

How  do  you  do?  Have  you  got  the  iron  back?  Have  you  put  it  up?  Does  it  make  the 
chimney  worse  than  before?  Eor  this  is  the  general  result  of  all  improvements  recommended 
by  friends.     *     *     *     *     * 

*  Let  me  beg  of  you  to  take  more  care  of  those  beautiful  geraniums,  and  not  let  the  pigs  in 
upon  them.  Geranium-fed  bacon  is  of  a  beautiful  color,  but  it  takes  so  many  plants  to  fatten 
one  pig  that  such  a  system  can  never  answer.     I  cannot  conceive  who  put  it  into  your  head. 

Charles  Sumner  wrote  to  his  Cambridge  classmates  on  receiving  a  letter  that  had 
been  forwarded  to  several  points, 

Tour  missile  hit  the  mark;  though  from  its  early  date  and  late  coming  one  would  think  that 
the  post-office  powder  was  not  of  the  best  proof. 

Letter  from  Washington  Irving  to  his  nephew: 

-,    _         _  Paris,  March  29,  1825. 

My  Dear  Pierre, 

I  am  very  much  gratified  by  your  letter.     It  is  full  of  good  sense  and  good  feeling.     You 


They  ... 

warn  you  for  the  future,  not  to  censure  you  for  the  past ;  I  had  felt  in  my  own  case  "ho  wTnsen" 
sibly  a  young  man  gets  beguiled  away  by  the  imagination  and  wanders  from  the  safe  beaten 
path  ot  lite  to  lose  himself  m  the  mazes  of  literature.  Scarcely  any  author  ever  set  forth  with 
the  intention  or  surmise  of  becoming  such ;  he  becomes  so  by  degrees ;  and  I  have  seen  enough 
of  literary  life  to  warn  all  of  those  who  are  dear  to  me  should  I  see  any  danger  of  their  stray- 

I  am  glad  you  do  not  relinquish  your  studies.  On  the  contrary,  task  yourself  to  become  a 
valuable  man  at  all  points.  When  you  have  leisure,  do  not  waste  it  in  idle  society;  by  idle  I 
mean  what  is  termed  fashionable  society.  How  many  an  hour  of  hard  labor  and  hard  study 
have  I  had  to  subject  myself  to,  to  atone  in  a  slight  degree  for  the  hours  which  I  suffered 
society  to  cheat  me  out  of!  Young  people  enter  into  society  in  America  at  au  age  at  which 
they  are  cooped  up  in  schools  in  Europe.     ***** 

I  again  repeat,  devote  as  much  of  your  time  as  you  can  spare  from  business  and  healthful 
exercise,  to  storing  your  mind  with  valuable  information,  such  as  will  make  you  a  useful  man 
and  an  important  factor  of  a  busy  community. 

Your  affectionate  uncle, 

Washington  Living. 

Note.— The  "former  letter"  alluded  to  may  be  found  in  Vol.  II.  of  the  People's  Edition  of  the 
Life  and  Letters  of  Washington  Irving.  We  regret  that  its  length  forbids  its  reproduction  here, 
but  it  is  worthy  to  be  read  by  every  young  person  who  would  receive  good  practical  advice  from 
so  charming  and  distinguished  a  writer. 

EXERCISES. 

1.  Write  a  letter  to  your  parents  or  to  one  of  your  relatives,  describing  your 
trip  to  the  city,  your  experience  in  finding  the  school,  your  impressions  of  the 
school  and  its  appointments,  and  of  the  city  in  general. 


LETTERS    OF   CONGRATULATION".  G3 

Note. — You  are  requested  to  write  this  letter  with  a  view  of  mailing  it,  after  inspection  and 
suggestions  from  the  teacher,  to  some  relative  to  whom  you  intend  to  write  during  your  stay  in 
the  school.  Avoid  using  the  pronoun  "I"  as  much  as  possible.  Do  not  hesitate  to  express  your 
opinion  regarding  any  feature  or  particular  that  strikes  you,  and  remember  that  your  friends  are 
interested  in  any  little  details  that  interest  you. 

2.  Answer  your  father's  (or  some  friend's)  latest  letter  to  you,  or  such  part  of  it 
as  you  care  to  hand  in  for  inspection.  Write  just  as  freely  and  familiarly  as  you  do 
when  writing  ordinarily  to  him,  as  your  letter  will  be  criticised,  not  only  from  the 
standpoint  of  correct  spelling  and  expression  and  good  writing,  but  the  style,  spirit, 
and  feeling  will  be  considered  as  well. 

3.  Write  to  your  little  brother  or  sister  or  cousin,  who  is,  say,  under  ten  years  of 
age,  and  who  has  been  promised  a  letter  from  3^ou.  Write  such  a  description  of 
the  school  and  the  city  as  a  child  can  comprehend  and  be  interested  to  receive. 

4.  Write  a  letter  to  a  friend  who  thinks  of  taking  a  commercial  course  and  has 
written  you  for  a  synopsis  of  the  work  done  here.  Give  him  as  complete  and  con- 
nected a  description  of  the  course  of  study,  examination,  requirements  for  the  various 
departments,  and  work  in  general,  as  you  can,  and  assure  him  that  you  are  describing 
these  features  just  as  you  have  found  them.  Add  any  friendly  communications  you 
choose  to  write  him. 

5.  Write  to  a  friend  or  relative,  accepting  his  invitation  to  spend  a  few  days  with 
him  on' completing  your  course  in  the  school. 

LETTERS   OF   CONGRATULATION. 

Letters  of  congratulation  are  those  written  to  friends  who  have  achieved  suc- 
cess or  haye  been  in  some  way  specially  favored.  As  we  should  not  write  letters  of 
condolence  unless  we  can  join  in  the  grief  of  our  friends,  so  we  ought  not  to  write 
letters  of  congratulation  unless  we  can  rejoice  in  their  happiness.  There  must  be 
no  feeling  of  grudging  or  jealousy, —  nothing  but  the  most  natural,  hearty,  and 
genuine  feelings  of  joy,  expressed  in  your  happiest  style.  Even  those  who  are 
enemies,  in  the  sense  that  they  represent  opposing  interests,  sometimes  sink  their 
common  differences,  and  laying  aside  all  antagonisms  for  the  time,  join  in  the 
general  expression  of  congratulation.  Letters  of  congratulation  are  generally  brief, 
frequently  a  telegraphic  dispatch,  and  contain  no  news  or  intelligence  of  other 
matters.  This,  however,  depends  somewhat  upon  the  occasion,  as,  for  example,  the 
following  letter  from  Charles  Sumner  to  a  friend  who  had  just  rejoined  his  family 
after  a  term  of  absence  from  them: 

Hudson,  on  the  North  River, 
Tuesday  Evening,  Sep.  28,  1841. 
Dear  Lteber, — 

Here  I  am  imprisoned  by  the  rain  in  the  inn  of  a  Yankee  village.  Longing  for  companion- 
ship I  write  to  you,  and  while  I  write,  imagine  that  I  have  it — as  the  ostrich  supposes  himself 
free  from  danger  when  he  has  thrust  his  head  into  the  sand.     ***** 

I  trust  you  have  had  fair  breezes  and  this  letter  will  rind  you  with  her  who  loves  you  so 
well  and  with  your  boys  frolicking  about  you.  Ah !  my  dear  Lieber,  are  you  not  happy  ?  I 
know  where  you  live.  I  wish  your  home  were  more  according  to  your  heart ;  but  you  have 
sources  of  the  highest  happiness  —  domestic  bliss  of  the  rarest  kind  ;  constant  and  honorable 
employment  for  your  time  ;  a  distinguished  name  ;  and  the  consciousness  of  doing  good,  of 
aiding  the  cause  of  truth,  of  education,  and  government. 
I  know  few  persons  who  have  such  reasons  for  blessing  God  as  you.     ***** 

Ever  yours, 

Charles  Sumner. 


64  COKKESPONDENCE. 

When  Sumner  won  the  Bowdoin  prize,  his  friend  Hopkinson  wrote  him  as  follows: 

***** 

Congratulations  are  matter  of  oourse;  but  I  hope  you  will  consider  it  equally  a  matter  of 

oourse  that  a  friend  should  feel  great  joy  in  your  success.     *    *    *     * 

Be  this  a  foretaste  of  niauy  smvesses  iu  laudable  uudertakings. 

***** 

Congratulations  from  an  old  friend  to  a  successful  competitor  for  university 
honors,  upon  his  winning  the  gold  medal : 

Fair  Haven,  N.  H.,  July  29,  1889. 
Mr  Dear  Hudson, 

This  moment  I  receive  the  news  of  the  glorious  termination  of  your  college  course.  Accept 
my  heartiest  congratulations.  I  was  sure  you  would  win,  and  you  deserve  every  bit  of  your 
success.  The  goal  you  fixed  your  eyes  upon  four  years  ago  is  reached,  and  you  settle  down 
with  light  heart  and  step  to  the  enjoyment  of  your  well-earned  reward.  Shake  hands,  old 
boy !  while  I  say,  well  done !  and  may  this  success  be  only  the  forerunner  of  many  others 
awaiting  you. 

Ever  your  friend, 

Chas.  J.  Harper. 


EXERCISES. 

Write  the  following  letters  of  congratulation  : 

1.  To  your  representative  in  Congress,  congratulating  him  upon  his  election. 

2.  Congratulate  a  friend  upon  his  bravery  in  rescuing  a  child  from  a  burning 
building  at  the  peril  of  his  own  life ;  upon  his  saving  a  drowning  man ;  or  upon  his 
heroism  in  risking  his  own  life  to  save  others  under  any  circumstances  you  may 
choose  to  supply. 

3.  A  friend  has  worked  for  several  years  upon  an  invention.  Ke  has  struggled 
against  poverty,  the  ridicule  of  enemies,  and  the  estrangement  of  friends.  But  he 
has  succeeded  at  last,  and  his  invention  promises  to  revolutionize  the  methods  of 
labor  in  its  line,  and  to  yield  him  the  rich  reward  of  an  assured  fortune  and  an 
honored  name.  Write  him  a  letter,  congratulating  him  upon  his  complete  triumph. 
(Call  to  mind  some  of  the  inventors  m  the  history  of  steam,  electricity,  and  labor- 
saving  machinery.) 

4.  Recall  any  circumstance  that  you  may  have  knowledge  of  in  which  some  friend 
deserved  congratulation,  and  write  him  a  letter  that  shall  be  self-explanatory;  that 
is,  that  shall  give  a  reader  who  is  unacquainted  with  the  circumstances  a  clear  idea 
of  what  took  place. 


LETTERS  OF  INTRODUCTION'. 

A  Letter  of  Introduction  is  one  in  which  a  person  introduces  the  bearer  to  a 
friend  who  is  absent.  It  should  not  be  considered  necessary  to  say  anything  in  the 
letter  commendatory  of  the  bearer,  though  there  is  no  objection  to  a  few  words  in 
his  favor,  the  letter  itself  being  sufficient  guarantee  of  the  writer's  good  opinion  of 
him. 

A  letter  of  introduction  is  usually  presented  in  person,  and  should  not  be  lengthy, 
the  envelope  should  be  addressed  as  shown  in  the  fourth  illustration,  page  25;  it 
does  not  require  a  stamp,  and  should  not  be  sealed. 


LETTERS    OF   CONDOLENCE.  65 

The  following  is  a  proper  form  of  a  letter  of  introduction: 

Waupon,  Wis.,  Oct.  16,  1889. 
Mk.  J.  C.  Remington, 
Osceola,  S.  C. 

My  Dear  Sir, — I  have  much  pleasure  in  introducing  to  you  the  bearer,  Mr.  Lansing 
C.  Warren,  who  visits  your  State  in  the  interests  of  his  health. 

Any  courtesy  you  may  kindly  extend  to  Mr.  Warren  I  shall  regard  a  personal  favor  to  mv- 
self. 

Sincerely  yours, 

Frank  H.  Hudson. 


EXERCISES. 

1.  Write  a  letter  to  your  friend  W.  A.  Spalding,  Los  Angeles,  Cal.,  introducing 
Mr.  D.  W.  Darling,  an  old  college  friend  who  is  in  Southern  California  on  account 
of  his  health.  Eefer  to  Mr.  Spalding's  knowledge  of  the  best  points  in  the  state 
for  the  kind  of  climate  your  friend  requires. 

2.  Write  a  letter  to  Mr.  R.  C.  Sparrow,  Ocean  Grove,  N".  J.,  introducing  your 
friend  Wm.  H.  James,  who  is  spending  a  few  weeks  at  the  resort. 

3.  Write  a  letter  to  Mr.  J.  H.  Whitney,  27  River  St.,  Niagara  Falls,  N.  Y., 
introducing  your  friend  W.  W.  Carson,  who  has  a  few  hours  which  he  wishes  to 
spend  to  the  best  advantage  in  viewing  the  great  cataract. 


LETTERS  OE   CONDOLENCE. 

Letters  of  Condolence  are  such  as  express  sorrow  and  sympathy  for  friends 
who  have  suffered  reverses,  looses  or  bereavement.  The  task,  especially  in  the  latter 
case,  may  be  a  difficult  one,  yet  to  refrain  from  attempting  it  might  be  interpreted 
in  the  light  of  neglect  or  indifference.  If  we  hesitated  to  write  such  a  letter  it 
would  not  be  owing  to  our  unwillingness  to  do  anything  in  our  power  to  bring  com- 
fort to  the  sorrowing  one,  but  to  the  fear  that  our  very  attempt  might  have  the 
effect  of  intensifying  the  grief  we  seek  to  assuage.  This  should  not,  however, 
excuse  us  from  taking  up  the  duty  and  performing  it  to  the  best  of  our  ability. 
The  following  suggestions  are  offered  regarding  the  writing  of  such  letters. 

Do  not  enter  into  argument  to  show  the  disconsolate  one  his  duty  to  submit 
uncomplainingly  to  his  lot.  Such  letters,  however  clear  and  logical,  seem  hard  and 
unfeeling  to  one  who  is  seeking  for  some  crumb  of  comfort. 

Do  not  write  a  long  letter.  Let  your  own  grief  and  fellow-suffering  be  shown  in 
a  few  lines  coining  from  your  heart. 

Be  very  considerate  in  the  use  of  words,  and  omit  mentioning  names  or  details  of 
the  sorrow,  as  they  serve  to  harrow  the  feelings  and  open  afresh  the  fountains  of  grief. 

Do  not  suggest  what  might  have  been  if  only  such  and  such  had  been  done,  no 
matter  how  firmly  you  may  be  grounded  in  such  an  opinion;  rather  strive  to  divert 
the  sufferer's  mind  to  something  he  did,  the  memory  of  which  will  always  yield 
him  comfort, 

A  fine  example  of  this  occurs  in  the  correspondence  of  Charles  Sumner,  whose 
letters  on  all  occasions  seem  to  find  every  possible  opportunity  for  the  expression  of 
sympathetic  feeling.     We  quote  part  of  his  beautiful  letter  to  his  friend  Charle- 


66  CORRESPONDENCE. 

magne  Tower,  on  receiving  from  him  a  letter  communicating  the  intelligence  of  the 

death  of  Mr.  Tower's  father: 

Cambridge,  Friday  Morning,  May  11,  1832. 
My  Dear  Friend, 

The  moment  I  saw  the  black  seal  of  your  letter,  my  mind  anticipated  the  sorrowful  intelli- 
gence it  bore.  Permit  me  to  join  with  you  in  grief.  I  offer  you  my  sincere  sympathies. 
The  loss  of  a  father  I  can  only  imagine  ;  may  God  put  far  distant  the  day  when  that  affliction 
shall  come  upon  me  !  You  have  been  a  faithful  son,  and  I  know  a  joy  to  his  eyes.  I  rever- 
ence the  spirit  with  which  yon  have  sacrificed  all  your  professional  and  literary  predilections.* 
You  did  that  for  your  father's  sake,  and  the  thought  that  you  did  it  on  his  account  must  be 
to  you  a  spring  of  satisfaction  and  consolation  as  hallowed  as  the  grief  you  feel.    ***** 

Believe  me  ever  your  true  friend, 

Charles  Sumner. 

*  Mr.  Tower,  who  died  July  25,  1889,  was  a  famous  Philadelphia  capitalist  and  lawyer. 

Sometimes  we  may  wish  to  convey  our  sympathy  when  we  feel  that  the  circum- 
stances of  our  acquaintance  scarcely  justify  a  direct  communication.  An  example 
of  such  a  case  occurs  in  another  of  Sumner's  letters,  which  we  quote. 

Writing  to  Longfellow  in  1841,  he  says: 

"This  moment  comes  to  hand  a  letter  from  my  brother  Albert,  communicating  the  intelli- 
gence of  the  death  of  the  wife  of  our  friend  .     My  heart  bleeds  for  him.     I  think  of 

his  wife  —  simple,  cheerful,  sweet-voiced,  and  more  than  all  tilling  his  heart.  If  you  write 
to  him,  pray  assure  him  of  my  deep  sympathy.  I  would  write  myself  but  that  I  have  not  that 
length  of  acquaintance  with  him  which  would  seem  to  justify  my  approaching  him  in  such  a 
terrible  calamity.  It  is  on  such  occasions  that  the  chosen  Mends  of  years  only,  heart-bound 
and  time-bound,  assemble  and  knit  themselves  about  the  sufferer.  I  have  received  no  intelli- 
gence for  a  long  time  that  has  grieved  me  so  much." 

Perhaps  no  better  specimen  of  a  letter  of  condolence  can  be  found  than  the  follow- 
ing, from  the  pen  of  the  lamented  Lincoln.  The  original  letter  adorns  the  walls  of 
a  hall  in  the  College  of  Brasenose,  at  Oxford,  where  it  is  looked  upon  with  deep 
interest  by  American  visitors  and  is  treasured  by  the  authorities  of  the  college.  It 
explains  itself : 

Executive  Mansion, 

Washington,  Nov.  21,  1864. 

Dear  Madam, —  I  have  been  shown  in  the  files  of  the  War  Department  a  statement  of  the 
Adjutant-General  of  Massachusetts  that  you  are  the  mother  of  five  sons  who  have  died  glori- 
ously on  the  field  of  battle.  I  feel  how  weak  and  fruitless  must  be  any  word  of  mine  which 
should  attempt  to  beguile  you  from  the  grief  of  a  loss  so  overwhelming.  But  I  cannot  refrain 
from  tendering  to  you  the  consolation  that  may  be  found  in  the  thanks  of  the  Republic  they 
died  to  save.  I  pray  that  our  Heavenly  Father  may  assuage  the  anguish  of  your  bereave- 
ment, and  leave  you  only  the  cherished  memory  of  the  loved  and  lost,  and  the  solemn  pride 
that  must  be  yours  to  have  laid  so  costly  a  sacrifice  upon  the  altar  of  freedom. 

To  Mrs.  Bixby,  Yours  very  sincerely  and  respectfully, 

Boston,  Mass.  Abraham  Lincoln. 

EXERCISES. 

1.  Write  a  letter  to  a  friend  who  has  received  serious  injuries  in  a  railroad  collision, 
'compelling  the  amputation  of  a  limb.  Try  to  comprehend  the  situation  in  which 
he  is  so  sadly  and  suddenly  placed  ;  let  your  thoughts  be  active,  and  anticipate,  if 
possible,  his  anxieties  for  the  future.  Make  your  letter  cheery  and  hopeful,  and 
write  at  least  three  or  four  pages,  remembering  that  he  has  time  to  read  or  listen  to 
just  such  letters  while  lying  upon  his  couch  day  after  day. 

2.  Write  to  a  friend  Avho  has  had  his  home,  representing  the  savings  of  years, 
destroyed  by  fire,  barely  escaping  with  his  family,  and  losing  valuable  relics  and 
souvenirs  which  money  cannot  replace.     Assure  him  of  your  sympathy. 


SOCIAL   CORRESPONDENCE.  67 

3.  Write  to  a  friend  who  has  lost  an  only  child.  Write  in  such  a  strain  as  to  show 
that  you  feel  the  loss  and  that  you  suffer  with  him,  pointing  him  to  a  Source  from 
which  you  derive  consolation.  Make  the  letter  brief,  indicating  a  heart  too  full  for 
lengthy  writing. 

4.  Recall  some  actual  event  in  your  recollection  in  which  a  friend  or  relative 
suffered  serious  loss  or  bereavement.  Let  it  he  a  case  in  which  your  own  grief  and 
sympathy  would  constrain  you  to  offer  your  condolence,  and  write  the  letter  you 
would  send  under  such  circumstances. 


MISCELLANEOUS  EXERCISES. 

1.  Write  a  letter  inviting  a  friend  to  join  you  in  a  trip  to  the  mountains  for  a 
few  weeks.  Mention  your  plans  for  amusement,  recreation,  or  rest,  and  give  a  glow- 
ing account  of  the  advantages  of  the  place  for  obtaining  them. 

2.  Write  a  letter  inviting  a  friend  to  spend  a  few  days  at  your  home.  Mention 
some  special  entertainment  that  you  are  to  have  and  which  you  wish  your  friend  to 
share. 

3.  Write  a  letter  to  one  of  your  regular  correspondents;  let  it  be  a  friend  who 
writes  good  letters  to  you,  which  you  always  strive  to  answer  in  your  best  style. 
After  completing  the  letter,  substitute  other  names  and  places  (if  you  wish)  and 
hand  to  the  teacher. 

4.  Write  a  letter  to  a  friend  in  Boston,  accepting  an  invitation  to  spend  a  week 
in  the  city.  Eefer  to  a  former  pleasant  visit,  and  say  at  what  time  you  will  arrive 
and  by  what  line. 

5.  Write  an  answer  to  above,  saying  you  will  be  delighted  with  a  visit  from  your 
friend,  and  that  you  will  be  at  the  station.  Refer  to  some  pleasant  trips  you  have 
in  view,  and  the  delight  you  anticipate  in  having  an  old  friend  with  you. 

6.  Write  an  answer  to  No.  4,  saying  the  sudden  illness  of  one  of  your  family 
compels  you  to  deny  yourself  the  pleasure  of  a  visit  from  your  friend  at  the  present 
time;  that  you  hope  you  will  be  able  to  send  word  in  a  few  days  bidding  him 
"Come,''  and  that  you  are  much  disappointed. 

7.  Write  a  letter  declining  an  invitation. 

8.  Write  a  letter  from  a  summer  resort  to  a  friend,  urging  him  to  join  you. 
Describe  the  attractions. 

9.  Write  a  letter  of  friendship  to  a  former  teacher,  saying  where  you  are  and 
what  you  are  doing,  and  how  frequently  and  how  much  you  appreciate  the  kindly 
help  and  advice  he  gave  you. 

10.  Write  a  letter  to  your  sister  or  brother  at  home,  in  answer  to  one  just  received 
about  home  matters.  Ask  after  all  at  home  and  what  is  being  done,  saying  how 
great  an  interest  you  have  in  all  that  is  happening  there. 


68  CORRESPONDENCE. 


Postal  Information. 


The  post-office  department  desires  that  the  public  be  well  informed  on  postal 
matters,  and  orders  the  annual  publication  of  the  United  States  Official  Postal  Guide, 
with  monthly  supplement,  which  may  be  consulted  at  any  post-office  or  obtained 
t  h rough  any  bookseller.  The  following  extracts  from  the  Guide  contain  many  valu- 
able suggestions  of  general  interest  to  the  public: 

How  to  Direct  and  Mail  Letters.— Mail-matter  should  be  addressed  legibly  and  completely, 
giving  the  name  of  the  post-office,  and,  if  to  a  city  having  a  free  delivery,  the  street  and  number;  and 
the  post-office  box  of  the  person  addressed  should  be  added,  if  he  have  one.  It  is  well  to  give  the 
county  also,  and  to  spell  the  name  of  the  State  in  full.  (This  is  not  the  usual  custom.)  To  secure 
return  to  the  sender  in  case  of  misdirection  or  insufficient  payment  of  postage,  his  name  should 
be  written  or  printed  upon  the  upper  left-hand  corner  of  all  mail-  matter.  The  matter  will  then 
be  returned  to  the  sender,  if  not  called  for  at  its  destination,  without  going  to  the  dead  letter 
office,  and,  if  a  letter,  it  will  be  returned  free. 

Dispatch  is  hastened  by  mailing  early,  especially  when  large  numbers  of  letters,  newspapers,  or 
circulars  are  mailed  at  once. 

"When  numbers  of  letters  or  circulars  are  mailed  together,  addressed  to  the  same  destination,  it 
is  well  to  tie  them  in  bundles  with  the  addresses  facing  the  same  side.  On  letters  for  places  in 
foreign  countries,  especially  Canada  and  England,  in  which  many  post-offices  have  the  same  names 
as  offices  in  the  United  States,  the  name  of  the  country  as  well  as  post-office  should  be  given  in 
full.  Letters  addressed,  for  instance,  merely  to  "London,"  without  adding  "England,"  are  fre- 
quently sent  to  London,  Canada,  and  vice  versa,  thereby  causing  delay,  and  often  serious  loss.  Let- 
ters addressed  to  Burlington,  N.  S.  (Nova  Scotia),  often  go  to  Burlington,  New  York,  on  account 
of  the  resemblance  between  S  and  Y  when  carelessly  written. 

Avoid  Thin  Envelopes.— Thin  envelopes,  or  those  made  of  weak  or  poor,  unsubstantial  paper, 
should  not  be  used,  especially  for  large  packages.  Being  often  handled,  and  in  the  mail-bags  sub- 
jected to  pressure  and  friction,  such  envelopes  are  frequently  torn  open  or  bursted  without  fault 
of  those  who  handle  them. 

Register  Valuable  Matter. — All  valuable  matter  should  be  registered.  Registry  fee  is  ten 
cents,  which,  with  postage,  must  be  prepaid,  and  name  and  address  of  sender  must  be  given  on  the 
outside  of  the  envelope  or  wrapper.  Money  should  be  sent  by  a  money-order  or  registered  letter, 
otherwise  its  liability  to  loss  is  greater,  and  a  temptation  is  put  before  those  postal  employees 
through  whose  hands  it  passes. 

Postmasters,  before  receiving  a  letter  for  registration,  must  require  the  sender  to  have  it  securely 
sealed  with  its  contents;  to  have  it  fully  and  legibly  addressed;  to  have  his  or  her  name  and  address 
indorsed  across  the  end;  and  to  have  affixed  the  necessary  stamps  to  fully  prepay  postage  and  fee. 
Postmasters  and  then  employees  are  forbidden  to  address  a  registered  letter  or  package  for  the 
sender,  to  place  contents  therein,  to  seal  it,  or  affix  the  stamps  thereto;  this  must  be  done  by  the 
sender,  or  for  him  by  some  other  person. 

(Any  letter  or  postage  may  be  registered,  and  in  cases  in  which  the  writer  wishes  to  know  posi- 
tively whether  his  correspondent  received  his  letter,  the  receipt  returned  to  him  from  the  office 
of  delivery  furnishes  the  proof.) 

The  Convenience  of  Letter  Boxes. — Patrons  in  cities  where  letter  carriers  are  employed  are 
advised  to  provide  letter  boxes  at  places  of  business  or  private  residences,  thereby  saving  much  delay 
in  the  delivery  of  mail-matter. 

The  Use  of  Mailing  Boxes. — When  dropping  a  packet  into  a  mailing  box,  or  into  the  receptacle 
at  the  post-office,  care  should  be  taken  that  the  packet  falls  into  the  box,  and  does  not  stick  in  the 
passage.  Mail-matter  deposited  in  any  receptacle  erected  by  the  Department,  such  as  street  mail- 
ing boxes  for  the  reception  of  mail  matter  to  be  collected  by  letter  carriers,  or  boxes  in  railroad 


POSTAL   INFORMATION.  69 

depots  for  the  reception  of  matter  to  be  collected  by  employees  of  tbe  railway  mail  service,  cannot 
be  reclaimed  by  any  one  under  any  circumstances.  On  such  receptacles  erected  in  railroad  depots 
a  notice  should  be  affixed  that  they  are  not  intended  for  reception  of  matter  for  city  delivery. 
Persons  depositing  drop  letters  therein,  intended  for  city  delivery,  do  so  at  their  own  risk,  and 
cannot  reclaim  them,  except  through  the  dead  letter  office. 

Affix  Stamps  Firmly. — Postage  stamps  should  be  placed  on  the  upper  right-hand  corner  of  the 
address-side  of  all  mail-matter,  care  being  taken  that  they  are  securely  affixed. 

What  Postage  may  be  Paid  With. — Postmasters  are  not  required  to  accept  in  payment  for  post- 
age stamps,  etc.,  any  currency  which  may  be  so  mutilated  as  to  be  uncurrent  or  as  to  render  its  genu- 
ineness doubtful.  Xor  are  they  required  to  receive  more  than  twenty-five  cents  in  copper  or 
nickel  coins,  nor  to  affix  stamps  to  letters,  nor  to  make  change,  except  as  matter  of  courtesy. 
They  must  not  give  credit  for  postage. 

Penalty  for  Evasion  of  Payment  of  Postage.  —  Any  person  who  shall  conceal  or  inclose 
matter  of  a  higher  class  in  that  of  a  lower  class,  and  deposit  or  cause  the  same  to  be  deposited  for 
conveyance  by  mail,  at  a  less  rate  than  would  be  charged  for  both  such  higher  and  lower  class 
matter,  shall,  for  every  such  offense,  be  liable  to  a  penalty  of  ten  dollars. 

GEKERAI.    SUGGESTIONS. 

A  subscriber  to  a  newspaper  or  a  periodical  who  changes  his  residence  and  post-office  should 
at  once  notify  the  publisher,  and  have  the  publication  sent  to  his  new  address. 

The  delivering  of  letters  is  net  controlled  by  any  statutory  provision,  but  by  the  rules  and  regula- 
tions of  the  Post-Office  Department;  and  the  object  of  the  Department  is  to  insure  and  facilitate 
such  delivery  to  the  persons  for  whom  they  are  intended.  In  the  case  of  money-orders  and  regis- 
tered letters,  the  parties  applying  for  them,  if  not  known,  should  be  required  to  prove  their 
identity  in  the  same  manner  as  in  banking  institutions,  where  parties  presenting  drafts,  checks, 
etc.,  who  are  not  known,  are  required  to  prove  their  identity.  In  the  case  of  advertised  letters, 
parties  applying  should  be  questioned  as  to  the  place  or  places  from  whence  they  may  be  expect- 
ing correspondence.  In  the  general  delivery  of  a  post  office,  the  postmaster  shall  exercise  a  sound 
discretion  in  the  delivery  of  letters  to  persons  claiming  to  be  the  persons  named  in  the  address,  and 
who  may  not  be  known  to  him. 

Hotel  matter  should  be  returned  to  the  post-office  as  soon  as  it  is  evident  that  it  will  not  be 
claimed. 

Proprietors  of  hotels,  officers  of  clubs  and  of  boards  of  trade  or  exchanges,  should  not  hold 
unclaimed  letters  longer  than  ten  days,  except  at  the  request  of  the  person  addressed.  When  snch 
letters  are  returned  to  the  post-office  they  should  be  re-directed  for  forwarding;  and  in  the  absence 
of  more  definite  information  as  to  where  the  person  addressed  may  be  found,  the  new  address  may 
be  taken  from  the  hotel  register. 

All  inquiries,  whether  from  postmasters  or  the  public,  relative  to  lost  or  missing  mail-matter  of 
every  description,  both  foreign  and  domestic,  ordinary  and  registered,  should  be  addressed  to  the 
Chief  Post-Office  Inspector,  Post-Office  Department,  Washington,  D.  C,  to  whom  all  losses  or 
irregularities  should  be  reported  as  soon  as  knowledge  is  had  of  their  occurrence. 

All  inquiries  or  communications  relative  to  mail-matter  which  is  supposed  to  have  been  sent  to 
the  dead  letter  office  should  be  addressed  to  the  Superintendent,  dead  letter  office. 

In  such  cases  the  letter  of  inquiry  must  state  to  whom  and  what  post-office  the  article  was  ad- 
dressed, and  give  the  name  and  full  address  of  the  writer  or  sender,  the  date  and  place  of  mailing, 
and  a  brief  description  of  the  contents.  If  it  is  known  when  the  missing  matter  was  sent  to  the 
dead  letter  office,  the  date  and  the  reason  for  sending  should  be  given.  If  registered,  the  num- 
ber should  also  be  furnished. 

If  losses  are  promptly  reported  it  will  be  the  means  of  correcting  irregularities,  and  the  interests 
of  the  public,  as  well  as  the  efficiency  of  the  postal  service,  will  be  enhanced  thereby. 

Letters  addressed  to  persons  temporarily  sojourning  in  a  city  where  the  free  delivery  system  is 
in  operation  should  be  marked  "  Transient"  or  "  General  Delivery  "  if  not  addressed  to  a  street 
and  number  or  some  other  designated  place  of  delivery. 

Postal  employees  are  not  permitted  to  change  the  address  upon  misdirected  letters  and  other 
mail-matter.  Matter  not  addressed  to  any  post  office  cannot  be  forwarded  in  the  mails,  but  must 
be  returned  to  the  sender,  if  known,  for  better  direction,  or  else  sent  to  the  dead  letter  office. 
It  is  easier  for  the  public  to  address  their  mail-matter  to  a  post-office  than  it  is  for  the  Department 


70  CORRESPONDENCE. 

to  ascertain  -where  matter  not  addressed  to  a  post-office  should  he  sent.  Postmasters  have  heen 
instructed  to  inform  senders  of  t lie  proper  post-office  address  of  matter  returned  to  them  because 
not  addressed  to  a  post-office,  or,  if  the  proper  address  is  not  known,  to  advise  them  to  apply  to 
the  nearest  division  superintendent  of  railway  mail  service  for  the  desired  information. 

Book  manuscript,  manuscript  for  magazines,  periodicals,  newspapers,  and  music  manuscript,  are 
now  subjeel  to  full  letter  rates  of  postage,  except  they  be  accompanied  by  proof  sheets  or  cor- 
rected proof-sheets  of  such  manuscripts,  or  of  which  proofs  such  manuscript  is  a  correction  or 
addition,  when  the  rate  will  be  one  cent  for  two  ounces  or  fractional  part  thereof.  Manuscript,  as 
above  stated,  may  be  sent  otherwise  than  in  the  mails. 

All  mail-matter  arriving  at  destination,  upon  which  postage  is  collected  in  money  from  the  recip- 
ient, upon  delivery,  must  have  affixed  thereto  a  brown  postage-due  stamp  or  stamps  equal  to  the 
sum  collected.  Persons  from  whom  such  postage  is  required  may,  and  are  requested  to,  demand 
that  such  postage-due  stamps  be  affixed  by  the  postmaster  or  his  representative  when  payment  is 
made. 

Proprietors  of  hotels  should  omit  the  return-request  from  envelopes  supplied  gratuitously  to 
their  guests;  and  guests  using  such  envelopes  should  be  careful  to  designate  what  disposition 
should  be  made  of  letters  sent  by  them  in  case  they  cannot  be  delivered. 

RATES  OF   POSTAGE,    ETC. 

First-Class. — Letters,  and  all  other  written  matter,  whether  sealed  or  unsealed,  and  all  other 
matter  sealed,  nailed,  sewed,  tied,  or  fastened  in  any  manner,  so  that  it  cannot  be  easily  examined, 
two  cents  per  ounce  or  fraction  thereof.  Postal  cards  one  cent  each.  Postal  cards  are  unmail- 
able  with  any  writing  or  printing  on  the  address-side,  except  the  direction,  or  with  anything 
pasted  upon  or  attached  to  them. 

Second-Class. — Newspapers  and  periodical  publications,  when  sent  by  publishers  or  news-agents, 
one  cent  a  pound  or  fraction  thereof.  Newspapers  and  periodical  publications,  when  sent  by  per- 
sons other  than  the  publishers  and  news-agents,  one  cent  for  every  four  ounces  or  fraction  thereof. 

Third-Class. — Printed  matter,  in  unsealed  wrappers  only  (all  matter  enclosed  in  sealed  envelopes 
notched  on  the  sides  or  corners  must  pay  letter  rates),  one  cent  for  each  two  ounces  or  fraction 
thereof,  which  must  be  fully  prepaid.  This  includes  books,  circulars,  chromos,  hand-bills,  en- 
gravings, lithographs,  magazines,  music,  pamphlets,  proof-sheets  and  manuscripts  accompanying 
the  same,  reproductions  by  the  electric  pen,  hektograph,  metallograph,  papyrograph,  photographs, 
and  "blue  prints,"  and,  in  short,  any  reproduction  upon  paper  by  any  process,  except  hand- 
writing, type-writing,  and  the  copying-press,  not  in  the  nature  of  a  personal  correspondence. 
Limit  of  weight  four  pounds,  except  for  a  single  book,  which  may  weigh  more.  Third-class 
matter  must  be  fully  prepaid  or  it  will  not  be  forwarded. 

Fourth-Class. — All  mailable  matter  not  included  in  the  three  preceding  classes  which  is  so  pre- 
pared for  mailing  as  to  be  easily  withdrawn  from  the  wrapper  and  examined.  Rate,  one  cent  per 
ounce  or  fraction  thereof.     Limit  of  weight,  four  pounds.     Full  prepayment  compulsory. 

Circulars  Defined. — The  term  "  circulars  "  is  defined  to  he  a  printed  letter,  which  according  to 
internal  evidence,  is  being  sent  in  identical  terms  to  several  persons.  A  circular  shall  not  lose  ite 
character  as  such  when  the  date  and  the  name  of  the  addressed  and  of  the  sender  shall  be  written 
therein,  nor  by  the  correction,  in  writing,  of  mere  typographical  errors. 

Postmasters  may  Remove  Wrappers  of  Packages. — Postmasters  at  the  office  of  delivery  mav 
remove  the  wrappers  and  envelopes  from  mail-matter  not  charged  with  letter-postage,  when  it  can 
be  done  without  destroying  them,  for  the  purpose  of  ascertaining  whether  there  is  upon  or  con- 
nected with  any  such  matter  anything  which  would  authorize  or  require  the  charge  of  a  higher 
rate  of  postage  thereon. 

Over-weight  letters  or  other  first  class  matter  deposited  for  mailing  in  a  post  office  with  one  full 
rate  of  postage  prepaid  thereon  will  be  marked  "Due  2  cents,"  or  whatever  the  amount  may  be 
due,  and  forwarded  as  other  letters. 

Unmailable  matter.— Obscene  books,  letters,  papers,  pictures,  and  postal  cards;  lottery  circulars 
and  letters;  liquids  (except  as  permitted  in  the  Regulations);  gunpowder,  and  other  explosives; 
live  reptiles,  animals  and  insects  ( except  queen  bees) ;  poisons,  and  any  article  liable  to  injure  the 
mails  or  the  persons  of  those  handling  them;  also,  matter  without  address,  or  so  incorrectly,  insuf 
ficiently,  or  illegibly  addressed  that  it  cannot  be  forwarded  to  its  destination. 


POSTAL   INFORMATION".  71 

Weighing  Packages.  —  If  you  have  no  scales,  have  all  packages  weighed  at  the  post-office. 
Postage  must  be  prepaid  in  full,  or  the  package  will  not  be  forwarded. 

Re-forwarding.  —  Letters  will  be  re-forwarded  from  one  post-office  to  another  upon  the  written 
request  of  the  persons  addressed,  without  additional  charge  for  postage;  but  packages  of  third  and 
fourth  class  matter  cannot  be  forwarded  or  returned  without  a  new  payment  of  postage. 

Money  Orders.  —  Parties  procuring  money  orders  should  examine  them  to  see  that  they  are 
properly  filled  out  and  stamped.  This  caution  is  necessary  to  avoid  difficulties  in  the  way  of  pay- 
ment. The  maximum  amount  for  which  a  single  money  order  may  be  issued  at  a  Full  Money-Order 
office  is  $100,  and  at  a  Limited  Money-Order  office  is  $5;  and  no  more  than  three  orders  may  be 
issued  in  one  day  to  the  same  remitter,  in  favor  of  the  same  payee,  payable  at  the  same  post-office. 

Every  person  who  presents  a  money  order  for  payment  is  required  to  prove  Ms  identity  to  the  post- 
master, unless  tlie  latter  is  satisfied,  without  such  propf,  that  the  applicant  is  the  rightful  owner  of 
the  order. 

If  an  order  be  paid  to  the  wrong  person,  through  lack  of  necessary  precaution  by  the  postmaster 
he  will  be  held  accountable  for  such  payment.  Care  should  be  taken  that  the  signature  of  the 
payee  be  as  full  as  the  name  given  in  the  letter  of  advice,  and  in  no  way  inconsistent  therewith. 

When  a  money  order  has  been  lost  by  either  the  remitter,  payee,  or  indorsee,  a  duplicate  thereof 
will  be  issued  by  the  Department,  free  of  charge,  to  the  owner  of  the  original,  upon  his  making 
application  (stating  the  circumstances  of  the  loss),  to  be  forwarded  by  the  issuing  or  the  paying 
postmaster,  from  each  of  whom  he  must  obtain  and  furnish  a  certificate  that  the  original  order  had 
not  been  and  would  not  be  paid  or  repaid  as  the  case  may  be. 

Special  Delivery.  —  The  special  delivery  system  is  intended  to  secure,  by  means  of  special 
messengers,  the  immediate  delivery,  at  all  post  offices,  of  letters  or  other  articles  of  mail-matter, 
bearing  the  special  delivery  stamps  provided  by  law. 

Any  article  of  mailable  matter  bearing  a  ten-cent  special  delivery  stamp  in  addition  to  the  lawful 
postage,  is  entitled  to  immediate  delivery  on  its  arrival  at  the  office  of  address,  between  the  hours 
of  7  A.  M.  and  IIP.  M.,  if  the  office  be  of  the  free  delivery  class,  and  between  the  hours  of  7  A. 
M.  and  7  P.  M.  if  the  office  be  other  than  a  free  delivery  office. 

To  entitle  such  a  letter  to  immediate  delivery,  the  residence  or  place  of  business  of  the  addressee 
must  be  within  the  carrier  limits  of  a  free  delivery  office,  and  within  one  mile  of  any  other  office. 
Special  delivery  stamps  are  not  available  for  the  payment  of  postage,  nor  can  ordinary  postage 
stamps  be  used  to  secure  immediate  delivery  of  mail  matter. 

Special  delivery  matter  must  be  delivered  to  the  addressee,  or  to  any  one  specially  authorized  to 
receive  his  mail-matter.  In  his  absence  and  that  of  any  one  having  such  special  authority,  such 
matter  may  be  delivered  to  any  responsible  member  of  the  addressee's  family,  or  any  partner  or 
clerk  of  his,  or  responsible  person  employed  in  his  office;  and  to  the  officer  or  agent  of  any  firm, 
incorporated  company,  or  public  institution  to  which  addressed.  In  the  case  of  registered  matter 
received  for  special  delivery,  the  usual  registry  receipts,  in  addition  to  the  special  delivery  receipts, 
must.be  taken,  and  all  other  requirements  of  the  registry  regulations  must  be  observed. 

Letters  "  Opened  through  Mistake." — If  there  be  two  or  more  persons  of  the  same  name,  and 
a  letter  intended  for  one  is  delivered  to  another,  and  returned  by  him,  the  postmaster  will  re-seal 
the  letter  in  the  presence  of  the  person  who  opened  it,  and  request  him  to  write  upon  it  the  words 
opened  by  me  throdgh  mistake,  and  sign  his  name  ;  he  will  then  replace  the  letter  in  the 
post-office. 

Withdrawal  of  Letters  from  Mailing  Post-Office. —  To  prevent  fraud  the  postmaster  must 
not  permit  any  letter  put  into  his  post-office  for  transmission  by  mail  to  be  withdrawn  by  any 
person  except  the  writer  thereof,  or,  in  case  of  a  minor  child,  the  parent  or  guardian  of  the  same 
and  the  utmost  care  must  be  taken  to  ascertain  that  the  person  applying  for  such  letter  is  really 
the  writer,  or  parent  or  guardian  entitled  to  withdraw  the  same.  The  postmaster  acts  at  his  peril 
in  permitting  such  withdrawal,  and  would  be  liable  to  the  party  injured,  and  could  not  plead 
honest  intentions  as  a  defence  to  the  action. 

Withdrawal  by  Sender  after  Dispatch.—  After  a  letter  has  passed  from  the  mailing  post  office, 
the  delivery  of  the  same  may  be  prevented,  and  its  return  to  the  writer  secured,  by  an  application 
by  the  writer  to  the  postmaster  at  the  office  of  mailing,  stating  reasons  therefor,  identifying  the 
letter,  and  supporting  such  application  by  sufficient  proof  in  writing.  Upon  such  application  and 
evidence,  and  upon  a  deposit  being  made  by  the  writer  of  a  sum  sufficient  to  cover  all  expenses 
incurred,  the  postmaster  shall  telegraph  a  request  for  the  return  of  such  letter  to  his  office,  if  it  has 


CORRESPONDED  K. 


been  torwarded,  to  the  postmaster  at  the  office  of  address,  carefully  describing  the  same,  so  as  to 
identify  it  ami  prevent  the  return  of  any  other  matter. 

Letter  Carriers. —  A  letter  carrier  is  forbidden  to  deliver  mail  matter  in  the  streets,  even  to  the 
owners,  unless  they  are  personally  known  to  him,  and  it  can  be  done  without  unreasonable  delay, 
but  must  deliver  all  matter  at  the  houses  to  which  it  is  addressed. 

Carriers  are  forbidden  to  deliver  any  mailable  matter  which  has  not  passed  through  the  post 
office  or  station  with  which  they  are  connected,  or  to  exhibit  any  mail-matter  entrusted  to  them 
(except  on  the  order  of  the  postmaster  or  someone  authorized  to  act  for  him)  to  persons  other  than 
those  addressed,  or  to  deviate  from  their  respective  routes,  or  to  carry  letters  in  their  pockets,  or 
to  engage  in  any  business  not  connected  with  this  service  during  their  hours  of  business. 

(  liners  are  required,  while  on  their  rounds,  to  receive  all  letters  prepaid  by  postage  stamps  that 
may  be  handed  to  them  for  mailing,  but  are  strictly  forbidden  to  delay  their  deliveries  ly  waiting 
for  such  letters,  or  to  receive  money  to  pay  postage  on  letters  handed  them  for  mailing. 

A  letter  carrier  has  fulfilled  his  duty  when  he  has  delivered  mail  to  the  number  of  the  house  to 
which  it  is  addressed.  If  parties  in  the  house  read  postal  cards  before  delivery  to  the  parties 
addressed,  the  Department  cannot  control  the  matter.  The  courts  can  be  appealed  to,  if  relief  is 
sought. 

ABBREVIATIONS   OP    NAMES   OP   STATES    AND   TERRITORIES. 


Ala Alabama, 

.  1  'aska, . -  -  Alaska  Ter. 

Ariz.,.. Arizona  Ter. 

Ail-.,. Arkansas. 

California. 

'  ■ _  _  Colorado. 

Conn. ,. -  .Connecticut. 

Del Delaware. 

D.  ft, District  of  Columbia. 

Fla.,... -  -  Florida. 

Ga.,.. Georgia. 

Idaho, Idaho. 

Ill Illinois. 

Ind. , -.-  Indiana. 

Ind.  T., .Indian  Ter. 

Iowa, Iowa. 

Kans. , Kansas. 


Ky. , Kentucky. 

la. ,. Louisiana. 

Me. ,  _ Maine. 

Md. , -  .Maryland. 

Mass. , Massachusetts. 

Mich. , Michigan. 

Minn. , Minnesota. 

Miss., _  _ Mississippi. 

Mo., Missouri. 

Mont. ,. .Mantana. 

JSfebr  ,-.. Nebraska. 

Nev. ,.. Nevada. 

JSf.  H., New  Hampshire. 

JSf.  J.,.. New  Jersey. 

JSf.  Mex.,..  ..  New  Mexico  Ter. 

JSf.  Y.,... ...New  York. 

JSf.  ft , North  Carolina. 


JSf.  Dak., North  Dakota. 

Ohio, Ohio. 

Ohio.  T., Oklahoma  Ter. 

Oregon Oregon. 

Pa. , Pennsylvania. 

B.  I, Rhode  Island. 

8.  ft, South  Carolina. 

8.  Dak., South  Dakota. 

Tenn., Tennessee. 

Tex. ,  _ Texas. 

Utah, Utah. 

Vt. , Vermont. 

Va. ,.. Virginia. 

Wash., Washington. 

W.  Va.,.. West  Virginia. 

Wis.,. Wisconsin. 

Wyo. , Wyoming 


Index. 


Abbreviations  of  names  of  states  and  terri- 
tories, 72. 

Acknowledging  orders,  E'3  •  remittances,  36 ; 
form  of  acknowledgment,  41. 

Address,  what  it  consists  of,  position,  11;  inside 
address,  reasons  for  use,  11, 12;  script  illus- 
trations of,  punctuation  of,  exercises,  12, 
13,  14,  15,  16,  28,  58;  omission,  12,  26;  im- 
perfect addresses,  29. 

Advertisements,  answering,  48. 

Affection,  letters  of,  59. 

Application,  letters  of,  suggestions,  exercises, 
47,  48. 

Bearer,  drafts  and  checks  made  payable  to,  38; 
letters  of  indorsement  to,  of  introduction 
to,  44 ;    of  recommendation  to,  45. 

Body,  definition,  beginning,  17;  margin  para- 
graphing, 17,  18;  punctuation,  18,  59. 

Business  letters,  definition  of,  7. 

Capitalizing  of  complimentary  closing,  19,  20; 
of  amounts  written  in  words,  37. 

Censure,  letter  of,  specimen  letters,  exercises,  49. 

Complimentary  closing,  definition,  position, 
wording,  18;  omission,  51;  script  illustra- 
tions, 19;  punctuation,  20, 

Condolence,  letters  of,  suggestions,  specimen 
letters,  exercises,  65  66,  67. 

Congratulation,  letters  of,  specimen  letters, 
suggestions,  63;  exercises,  64. 

Copying  letters,  12,  30. 

Corrections,  necessity  for,  how  made,  6, 11,  27; 
illustration  of  corrected  letter,  27. 

Correspondence,  definition  of,  7 ;  importance 
of.  5. 

Courtesy,  32  titles  of,  12. 

Dead  letter  office,  letters  that  go  to,  why,  29, 
68,  69. 

Dickens,  letter  of,  61. 

Directions  (see  envelope  address). 

Draft,  New  York,  form  of,  37;  showing  indorse- 
ment, 38. 

Dunning  letters,  how  to  write,  49;  exercises,  51. 

Envelope  address,  definition,  position,  how 
name  should  be  written,  23,  68;  illustra- 
tions, 25;  imperfect  addresses,  29;  exer- 
<  is<-s  26. 


Envelopes  proper  for  business  correspondence, 
for  official,  for  social,  color,  size,  shape, 
9,  68. 

Errors,  29;  errors  corrected,  27. 

Exercises  uuder  address,  heading  salutation, 
paragraphing,  and  complimentary  clos- 
ing, 28. 

Expression,  style  of  in  business  letters,  30,  31; 
in  social  letters,  60,  61. 

Folding,  manner  of,  22;  illustration,  22;  with 
inclosure,  36. 

Friendship,  letters  of,  description,  style,  ex- 
amples,  59,  60 ;  opening  and  closing  sen- 
tences, 60,  61. 

General  delivery  (see  transient). 

Heading  defined,  what  it  contains,  position,  9  : 
script  illustrations  of,  10,  11;  punctuation 
of,  remark,  exercises,  11. 

Inclosures,  letters  containing,  manner  of  insert- 
ing, illustration,  36;  opening  letters  with, 
26;  exercises,  38. 

Indorsement,  advantage  of,  38;  script  illustra 
tion,  38;  letters  of,  specimen  letter,  44;  ex. 
ercises,  45. 

Ink,  color  and  properties  discussed,  8. 

Inserting,  manner  of,  22. 

Inside  address  (see  address). 

Introduction,  5,  6;  letters  of,  exercises,  44,  64 
65;  specimen  letter,  64. 

Invoice,  specimen  of,  40. 

Irving,  Washington,  letter  of,  CI. 

Letter,  definition  of  a,  classes  of,  7. 

Letter  paper  (see  paper). 

Lincoln,  letter  of,  66. 

Margin,  17. 

Materials  ordinarily  used,  7,  58. 

Miscellaneous  exercises  in  letter  writing,  54,  55 
56,  57. 

Modifying  words,  where  placed,  31. 

Neatness,  in  folding,  22 ;  in  sealing,  23 ;  it 
addressing,  23 ;  in  penmanship,  29,  30 
in  affixing  stamp,  24;  in  letters  of  applica 
tion,  47. 

Note,  promissory,  illustration,  39. 

Official  letters,  definition  of,  7. 

Opening  letters,  manner  of,  26. 


73 


74 


INDEX. 


Ordering  goods,  letters,  33;  script  illustration, 
35;  exorcises,  33,  34. 

Originality,  how  cultivated.  81;  exercises,  57; 
in  openings  and  closings  of  social  letters, 
60,  61. 

Overweight,  letters,  29,  70. 

Paper,  proper  kind,  styles  and  sizes  (note),  8; 
color,  !». 

Parts  of  a  letter,  named,  9. 

Pen,  proper  kind  described,  7. 

Penmanship,  necessity  for  good,  30;  relating  to 
signature,  20,  21. 

Perplexing  letters,  48. 

Postage,  insufficient,  25,  68;  rates  of,  70. 

Postal  information,  68,  69,  70,  71,  72. 

Postal  cards,  what  used  for,  how  written,  26. 

Post-office,  references  to,  26,  29  (see  postal  in- 
formation). 

Private  letters,  definition,  7. 

Promptness,  importance  of,  36. 

Public  letters,  classes  of,  7. 

Punctuation,  11,  13,  15,  18,  20. 

Rates  of  Postage,  70. 

Recommendation,  letters  of,  45;  specimen  let- 
ter of,  46;  exercises,  45;  open  letters  of, 
exercises,  47. 

Registry,  value  of,  object  of,  68. 

Remittances,  letters  with,  36,  37 ;  drafts  sent 
as,  38;  letters  asking  for,  49;  exercises  in,  51. 

Replies,  how  name  should  be  written,  20, 23, 29; 
hasty,  30 ;  promptness,  36 ;  to  advertise- 
ments, 48;  to  perplexing  letters,  49. 

Salutation,  definition,  wording,  position,  14, 
58,  59;  omission,  15,  51,  58;  script  illustra- 
tions of,  14,  15,  16;  exercises,  15. 


Sealing,  manner  of,  wax,  23;  omission,  23,  44, 

45. 
Signature,  definition,  position,  style  of  writing, 
title,  form,  uniformity,  script  illustrations, 
20;  exercises,  21,  22,  28. 

Smith,  Sydney,  letters  of,  61,  62. 

Social  letters,  definition,  classes,  parts,  58;  style, 
examples,  59,  60;  exercises,  62,  63. 

Special  favors,  letters  requesting,  script  illustra- 
tion, 42;  suggestions,  42,  43;  exercises,  43. 

Specimen  letters,  object  of,  11,  31;  corrected 
letter  ( script ),  27  ;  inclosing  remittance 
(script),  37;  ordering  goods  (script),  35;  re- 
questing favor  (script),  42;  introduction, 
44 ;  indorsement,  44 ;  recommendation 
(script),  40;  recommendation,  open,  47; 
censure,  49  ;  condolence,  66  ;  congratula- 
tion, 63;  business  letter  (script),  54. 

Spelling,  suggestions  regarding,  29. 

Stamp,   where  placed,  overweight  letters,  in 
closed  stamps,  24,  C9. 

State,  errors  in  writing,  29,  68> 

Statement,  form  of,  39. 

Style,  in  letters  of  friendship,  60,  61;  business 
letters  30,  31. 

Sumner,  Charles,  letters,  61,  62,  63,  66. 

Superscription  (see  envelope  address). 

Taylor,  Bayard,  letters  of,  60. 

Telegraphing,  suggestions  regarding,  51,  52  j 
exercises,  52,  53. 

Titles,  proper  use  discussed,  12,  20. 

Transients,  letters  for,  24,  69. 

Verbiage,  30. 

Words,  choice  of,  32. 


This  book  is  DUE  on  the  last  date  stamped  below 


OCT  11  1932 

oct  r  iw* 

'M  3     1935 

OCT   i  6  ,s 

,?R  a  0  1931 

^  JUL  2  0 

7  1937 

Form  L-9-35m-8,'28 


?T  2  8  193? 


WAY2  4194S 

DEC  1:41949 
MAR  1    1950 

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MAY  4     ^53 
IjOV  3      1956 
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